Cost-effectiveness of root canal treatment compared with tooth extraction in a Swedish Public Dental Service: A prospective controlled cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the cost-effectiveness of root canal treatment (RCT) compared with a tooth extraction in a general dental practice setting, with reference to cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained over 1 year. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This is a prospective controlled cohort study based on patients either starting RCT or undergoing extraction at one of six Public Dental Service clinics in the county of Västra Götaland, Sweden. From a total of 65 patients, 2 comparable groups were formed: 37 started RCT and 28 underwent extraction. A societal perspective was used for the cost calculations. QALYs were estimated, based on the EQ-5D-5L given to the patients at their first treatment appointment and then after 1, 6, and 12 months. RESULTS: The total mean cost of RCT ($689.1) was higher than for extraction ($280.1). For those patients whose extracted tooth was replaced, the costs were even higher ($1245.5). There were no significant intergroup differences in QALYs, but a significant improvement in health state values in the tooth-preserving group. CONCLUSIONS: In the short term, extraction was cost-effective compared with preserving a tooth with RCT. However, the potential need for future replacement of the extracted tooth, by an implant, fixed prosthesis, or removable partial dentures, may change the calculation in favor of RCT.

Societal costs associated to chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: A study utilizing linked national registries.

Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH) is a rare but serious complication after a pulmonary embolism. Healthcare resource utilization (HCRU; hospitalization, outpatient visits, and drug utilization) as well as productivity loss (sick leave and disability pension) before and after the CTEPH diagnosis is sparsely studied. By linking several Swedish national databases, this study estimated the societal costs in a national CTEPH cohort (n = 369, diagnosed with CTEPH in 2008-2019) 5 years before and 5 years after diagnosis (index date) and compared to an age, sex, and geographically matched control group (n = 1845, 1:5 match). HCRU and productivity loss were estimated per patient per year. Patients were stratified as operated with pulmonary endarterectomy (PEA group) or not operated (non-PEA group). Direct and indirect societal costs were 2.1 times higher before, and 8.1 times higher after the index date for patients with CTEPH compared to the matched control groups. The higher costs were evident already several years preceding the index date. The main cost driver before the index date in both the PEA and the non-PEA groups was productivity loss. The productivity loss remained high for both groups in the 5-year period following the index date, but the main cost drivers were prescribed drugs and hospitalizations for patients that underwent PEA and prescribed drugs in the non-PEA group. In conclusion, CTEPH was associated with large societal costs related to healthcare consumption and productivity loss, both before and after diagnosis.

Cost-effectiveness of different exercise intensities during oncological treatment in the Phys-Can RCT.

BACKGROUND: Cost-effectiveness is important in the prioritisation between interventions in health care. Exercise is cost-effective compared to usual care during oncological treatment; however, the significance of exercise intensity to the cost-effectiveness is unclear. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the long-term cost-effectiveness of the randomised controlled trial Phys-Can, a six-month exercise programme of high (HI) or low-to-moderate intensity (LMI) during (neo)adjuvant oncological treatment. METHODS: A cost-effectiveness analysis was performed, based on 189 participants with breast, colorectal, or prostate cancer (HI: n = 99 and LMI: n = 90) from the Phys-Can RCT in Sweden. Costs were estimated from a societal perspective, and included cost of the exercise intervention, health care utilisation and productivity loss. Health outcomes were assessed as quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), using EQ-5D-5L at baseline, post intervention and 12 months after the completion of the intervention. RESULTS: At 12-month follow-up after the intervention, the total cost per participant did not differ significantly between HI (€27,314) and LMI exercise (€29,788). There was no significant difference in health outcome between the intensity groups. On average HI generated 1.190 QALYs and LMI 1.185 QALYs. The mean incremental cost-effectiveness ratio indicated that HI was cost effective compared with LMI, but the uncertainty was large. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that HI and LMI exercise have similar costs and effects during oncological treatment. Hence, based on cost-effectiveness, we suggest that decision makers and clinicians can consider implementing both HI and LMI exercise programmes and recommend either intensity to the patients with cancer during oncological treatment to facilitate improvement of health.

Societal costs associated with pulmonary arterial hypertension: A study utilizing linked national registries.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a progressive disease with no cure. Healthcare resource utilization (HCRU; hospitalization, outpatient visits, and drug utilization) before diagnosis and productivity loss (sick leave and disability pension) before and after PAH diagnosis are not well known. By linking several Swedish national databases, this study have estimated the societal costs in a national PAH cohort (n = 749, diagnosed with PAH in 2008-2019) 5 years before and 5 years after diagnosis and compared to an age, sex, and geographically matched control group (n = 3745, 1:5 match). HCRU and productivity loss were estimated per patient per year. The PAH group had significantly higher HCRU and productivity loss compared to the control group starting already 3 and 5 years before diagnosis, respectively. HCRU peaked the year after diagnosis in the PAH group with hospitalizations (mean ± standard deviation; 2.0 ± 0.1 vs. 0.2 ± 0.0), outpatient visits (5.3 ± 0.3 vs. 0.9 ± 0.1), and days on sick leave (130 ± 10 vs. 13 ± 1) significantly higher compared to controls. Total costs during the entire 10-year period were six times higher for the PAH group than the control group. In the 5 years before diagnosis the higher costs were driven by productivity loss (76%) and hospitalizations (15%), while the 5 years after diagnosis the main cost drivers were drugs (63%), hospitalizations (16%), and productivity loss (16%). In conclusion, PAH was associated with large societal costs due to high HCRU and productivity loss, starting several years before diagnosis. The economic and clinical burden of PAH suggests that strategies for earlier diagnosis and more effective treatments are warranted.

Long-term resource utilisation and associated costs of exercise during (neo)adjuvant oncological treatment: the Phys-Can project.

BACKGROUND: Exercise during oncological treatment is beneficial to patient health and can counteract the side effects of treatment. Knowledge of the societal costs associated with an exercise intervention, however, is limited. The aims of the present study were to evaluate the long-term resource utilisation and societal costs of an exercise intervention conducted during (neo)adjuvant oncological treatment in a randomised control trial (RCT) versus usual care (UC), and to compare high-intensity (HI) versus low-to-moderate intensity (LMI) exercise in the RCT. METHODS: We used data from the Physical Training and Cancer (Phys-Can) project. In the RCT, 577 participants were randomised to HI or to LMI of combined endurance and resistance training for 6 months, during oncological treatment. The project also included 89 participants with UC in a longitudinal observational study. We measured at baseline and after 18 months. Resource utilisation and costs of the exercise intervention, health care, and productivity loss were compared using analyses of covariance (RCT vs. UC) and t test (HI vs. LMI). RESULTS: Complete data were available for 619 participants (RCT HI: n = 269, LMI: n = 265, and UC: n = 85). We found no difference in total societal costs between the exercise intervention groups in the RCT and UC. However, participants in the RCT had lower rates of disability pension days (p < .001), corresponding costs (p = .001), and pharmacy costs (p = .018) than the UC group. Nor did we find differences in resource utilisation or costs between HI and LMI exercise int the RCT. CONCLUSION: Our study showed no difference in total societal costs between the comprehensive exercise intervention and UC or between the exercise intensities. This suggests that exercise, with its well-documented health benefits during oncological treatment, produces neither additional costs nor savings.

Cost-effectiveness of internet-delivered cognitive behavioural therapy in patients with cardiovascular disease and depressive symptoms: secondary analysis of an RCT.

INTRODUCTION: Cost-effectiveness evaluations of psychological interventions, such as internet-delivered cognitive behavioural therapy (iCBT) programmes, in patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD) are rare. We recently reported moderate to large effect sizes on depressive symptoms in CVD outpatients following a 9-week iCBT programme compared with an online discussion forum (ODF), in favour of iCBT. In this paper, we evaluate the cost-effectiveness of this intervention. METHODS: Cost-effectiveness analysis of a randomised controlled trial. The EQ-5D-3L was used to calculate quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs). Data on healthcare costs were retrieved from healthcare registries. RESULTS: At 12-month follow-up, the QALY was significantly higher in iCBT compared with the ODF group (0.713 vs 0.598, p=0.007). The mean difference of 0.115 corresponds with 42 extra days in best imaginable health status in favour of the iCBT group over the course of 1 year. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) for iCBT versus ODF was €18 865 per QALY saved. The cost-effectiveness plane indicated that iCBT is a cheaper and more effective intervention in 24.5% of the cases, and in 75% a costlier and more effective intervention than ODF. Only in about 0.5% of the cases, there was an indication of a costlier, but less effective intervention compared with ODF. CONCLUSIONS: The ICER of €18 865 was lower than the cost-effectiveness threshold range of €23 400-€35 100 as proposed by the NICE guidelines, suggesting that the iCBT treatment of depressive symptoms in patients with CVD is cost-effective. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT02778074; Post-results.

Long-Term Cost-Effectiveness through the Dental-Health FRAMM Guideline for Caries Prevention.

A guideline called FRAMM, which is an acronym in Swedish for the most important parts of this guideline, namely "fluoride", "advice", "arena", "motivation" and "diet", was implemented in 2008 in the Västra Götaland Region in Sweden. This guideline included fluoride varnish applications performed at school twice a year at six-monthly intervals for all 12- to 15-year-olds, together with lessons on oral health. The aim of this analysis was to estimate the long-term cost-effectiveness, using prognostic calculations, of the FRAMM Guideline for 12- to 15-year-olds, compared with routine care, until the participants were 23 years old. A cost-effectiveness analysis was performed from a health care perspective, based on four years of verified data and seven years of prognosis. Data from FRAMM were combined with cost data from price lists in Sweden. The cost-effectiveness was analyzed by relating the difference in costs to the difference in the number of approximal surfaces with fillings and/or dentin lesions (DFSa). The analysis shows that FRAMM was considered dominant compared to the controls in all alternative scenarios, hence costs were prognosed to be lowered and outcomes were prognosed to be improved. A dental health program like the FRAMM Guideline with fluoride varnish during the caries risk period from 12 to 15 years is predicted to be cost-effective in the longer perspective. To further study the actual long-term caries increment after a preventive dental health program would be of great interest to verify these results.

Societal costs of informal care of community-dwelling frail elderly people.

Aims: The aims of this study are to describe informal care activities and to estimate the societal cost of informal care of community-dwelling frail elderly people in Sweden. Methods: This study was performed within the frame of the TREEE project that included 408 frail elderly patients. At index hospitalisation (baseline), primary informal caregivers of the patients were provided with a questionnaire on informal care during a period of three months. Questions concerning other (secondary) informal caregivers were also included. A rough estimate of the total cost of informal care of frail elderly people in Sweden was obtained by combining data from this study with published data and official statistics. Results: In total, 176 informal caregivers responded, and 89% had provided informal care. The informal caregivers (primary and secondary) provided care for an average of 245 hours over three months. Taking care of the home was the dominating activity. In total, the mean cost of informal care was estimated to approximately 18,000 SEK (€1878) over three months, corresponding to an annual cost of approximately 72,000 SEK (€7477) per frail elderly person. The total annual societal costs of informal care of community dwelling frail elderly people aged 75 years and older in Sweden was estimated to be approximately 11,000 million SEK (€1150 million). Conclusions: The care of frail elderly people provided by informal caregivers is extensive and represents a great economic value. Although our calculations are associated with uncertainty, the size indicates that supporting informal caregivers should be a priority for society.

Implementation of Empagliflozin in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus Type 2 and Established Cardiovascular Disease: Estimation of 5-Year Survival and Costs in Sweden.

INTRODUCTION: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) affects approximately 30% of patients with diabetes mellitus type 2 (T2D) and leads to increased morbidity, decreased survival and increased healthcare utilization. The aim of this study was to estimate the impact of treating these patients with the sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor empagliflozin on survival and healthcare utilization. METHODS: Actual survival and healthcare utilization data from a 5-year retrospective cohort study on patients with T2D and CVD in the Region of Östergötland, Sweden were used as a starting point. Actual data were adjusted in accordance with risk reductions for mortality and CV events related to empagliflozin treatment as reported in the EMPA-REG OUTCOME study. RESULTS: Applying the risk reductions related to empagliflozin treatment on the cohort of patients with T2D and CVD in Östergötland resulted in an increase in 5-year survival of 96 days per patient and reduced costs for healthcare and drugs other than empagliflozin. Including the cost of empagliflozin, treatment led to an increased net cost per patient of approximately SEK 18,000 over 5 years. CONCLUSION: Empagliflozin treatment would reduce mortality and healthcare utilization in the patient group. The treatment strategy should be considered cost-effective, supporting a broad implementation of empagliflozin for patients with T2D and established CVD, in line with current national and international guidelines.

Disease Burden and Healthcare Costs for T2D Patients With and Without Established Cardiovascular Disease in Sweden: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

INTRODUCTION: Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a complex chronic disease with an increasing prevalence worldwide. It is commonly associated with complications, such as cardiovascular disease (CVD). Patients with both T2D and established CVD are exposed to increased risk of further cardiovascular events, which means increased healthcare costs and impairments to quality of life and survival. To determine the added burden of CVD for T2D patients, we have analyzed the consumption and costs of healthcare and mortality in two T2D patient cohorts, with and without established CVD, respectively, during a 5-year follow-up in a Swedish region. METHODS: Patients with T2D on 1 January 2012 were identified using the administrative database of Region Östergötland and the Swedish National Diabetes Register. Established CVD was defined as the presence of a CVD-related healthcare visit in the period 2002-2011. Identified T2D patients were then followed retrospectively for 5 years (2012-2016) and data collected on utilization of healthcare resources, healthcare costs, and survival. Data pertinent to the study were retrieved from regional databases and national registries. RESULTS: On the index date (1 January 2012) there were 19,731 patients with T2D (prevalence 4.5%) in Region Östergötland, of whom 5490 had established CVD. Those patients with established CVD were older, more often men, and had longer diabetes duration and worse kidney function than those without. Compared to T2D patients without CVD, those with CVD had a significantly higher healthcare consumption, experienced higher costs, and had lower survival during the follow-up. CONCLUSION: This study confirms that established CVD is common among patients with T2D (approximately 30%). Established CVD has negative effects on the utilization of healthcare resources, healthcare costs, and mortality. It is therefore very important to improve the treatment strategy of this patient group.

Short-term Resource Utilization and Cost-Effectiveness of Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment in Acute Hospital Care for Severely Frail Elderly Patients.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to estimate the 3-month within-trial cost-effectiveness of comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA) in acute medical care for frail elderly patients compared to usual medical care, by estimating health-related quality of life and costs from a societal perspective. DESIGN: Clinical, prospective, controlled, 1-center intervention trial with 2 parallel groups. INTERVENTION: Structured, systematic interdisciplinary CGA-based care in an acute elderly care unit. If the patient fulfilled the inclusion criteria, and there was a bed available at the CGA unit, the patient was included in the intervention group. If no bed was available at the CGA unit, the patient was included in the control group and admitted to a conventional acute medical care unit. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: A large county hospital in western Sweden. The trial included 408 frail elderly patients, 75 years or older, in need of acute in-hospital treatment. The patients were allocated to the intervention group (n = 206) or control group (n = 202). Mean age of the patients was 85.7 years, and 56% were female. MEASURES: The primary outcome was the adjusted incremental cost-effectiveness ratio associated with the intervention compared to the control at the 3-month follow-up. RESULTS: We undertook cost-effectiveness analysis, adjusted by regression analyses, including hospital, primary, and municipal care costs and effects. The difference in the mean adjusted quality-adjusted life years gained between groups at 3 months was 0.0252 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.0082-0.0422]. The incremental cost, that is, the difference between the groups, was -3226 US dollars (95% CI: -6167 to -285). CONCLUSION: The results indicate that the care in a CGA unit for acutely ill frail elderly patients is likely to be cost-effective compared to conventional care after 3 months.

People in states worse than dead according to the EQ-5D UK value set: would they rather be dead?

PURPOSE: Quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) measure health by combining length and quality of life. QALYs constitute the effect side of incremental cost-effectiveness ratios, describing the results of health economic evaluations. The objectives of this study were to (1) investigate the prevalence of states worse than dead (SWD) when using the EuroQol-5D UK value set, and (2) to study to what extent SWDs are reasonable with a starting point in experience-based valuations of health states. METHODS: Data from a Swedish cross-sectional population survey were used. The survey was directed to 10,000 persons 65 years and older and its primary aim was to investigate the prevalence and consequences of chronic pain. The survey included questions reflecting life situation and well-being. Some of these were used in order to characterise people in SWD. RESULTS: SWD were found in 1.8% of the 6611 respondents. The prevalence of SWD increased with advancing age and was more common among women than men. The control questions used indicated that most of the persons being in SWD according to the EQ-5D UK value set most probably would not judge themselves to be in a SWD. CONCLUSIONS: Though negative QALY-weights are not very common, they constitute a non-negligible part of health states in a Swedish population 65 years and older. Prevalence of SWD is higher among women than men and increases with age. From responses to other questions on well-being and life situation, there is reason to doubt the reasonableness of experience-based negative QALY-weights in many cases.

Cost-effectiveness of comprehensive geriatric assessment at an ambulatory geriatric unit based on the AGe-FIT trial.

BACKGROUND: Older people with multi-morbidity are increasingly challenging for today's healthcare, and novel, cost-effective healthcare solutions are needed. The aim of this study was to assess the cost-effectiveness of comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA) at an ambulatory geriatric unit for people ≥75 years with multi-morbidity. METHOD: The primary outcome was the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) comparing costs and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) of a CGA strategy with usual care in a Swedish setting. Outcomes were estimated over a lifelong time horizon using decision-analytic modelling based on data from the randomized AGe-FIT trial. The analysis employed a public health care sector perspective. Costs and QALYs were discounted by 3% per annum and are reported in 2016 euros. RESULTS: Compared with usual care CGA was associated with a per patient mean incremental cost of approximately 25,000 EUR and a gain of 0.54 QALYs resulting in an ICER of 46,000 EUR. The incremental costs were primarily caused by intervention costs and costs associated with increased survival, whereas the gain in QALYs was primarily a consequence of the fact that patients in the CGA group lived longer. CONCLUSION: CGA in an ambulatory setting for older people with multi-morbidity results in a cost per QALY of 46,000 EUR compared with usual care, a figure generally considered reasonable in a Swedish healthcare context. A rather simple reorganisation of care for older people with multi-morbidity may therefore cost effectively contribute to meet the needs of this complex patient population. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial was retrospectively registered in clinicaltrial.gov, NCT01446757 . September, 2011.

Impact on affected families and society of severe rotavirus infections in Swedish children assessed in a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Few prospective cohort studies have estimated the overall impact of severe rotavirus gastroenteritis (RVGE) leading to hospitalization on families and society. We assessed human and economic resources needed to care for an affected average child aged <5 years in Sweden. METHODS: The study was conducted in Astrid Lindgren Children's Hospital which serves approximately 14% of all Swedish children <5 years of age. All children admitted with acute gastroenteritis in the study period were tested for rotavirus. Health care consumption was collected prospectively and publically available unit costs used to calculate direct costs. Non-medical and indirect costs were collected in interviews with families using a standardized questionnaire during the hospital stay and approximately 14 days post-discharge. RESULTS: 144/206 children (70%) with laboratory-confirmed RVGE were included. The median age was 14 months. The average total cost per hospitalized child was €3894, of which €2169 (56%) was due to direct healthcare-related costs (including Emergency Department visits and in-patient care), €104 (2%) to non-medical direct costs and €1621 (42%) to indirect costs due to productivity loss. Carers of children with severe RVGE were absent from work on average five days per study child: four days during hospitalization of affected child and one day due to gastroenteritis in the carer. CONCLUSIONS: Costs for RVGE are dominated by direct costs which are similar to some other countries in Europe, but indirect costs due to productivity loss are also important, and should be considered in decisions to introduce rotavirus vaccines into national vaccination programmes.

Acute care of severely frail elderly patients in a CGA-unit is associated with less functional decline than conventional acute care.

BACKGROUND: A high percentage of individuals treated in specialized acute care wards are frail and elderly. Our aim was to study whether the acute care of such patients in a comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA) unit is superior to care in a conventional acute medical care unit when it comes to activities of daily living (ADLs), frailty, and use of municipal help services. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A clinical, prospective, controlled trial with two parallel groups was conducted in a large county hospital in West Sweden and included 408 frail elderly patients, age 75 or older (mean age 85.7 years; 56% female). Patients were assigned to the intervention group (n=206) or control group (n=202). Primary outcome was decline in functional activity ADLs assessed by the ADL Staircase 3 months after discharge from hospital. Secondary outcomes were degree of frailty and use of municipal help services. RESULTS: After adjustment by regression analyses, treatment in a CGA unit was independently associated with lower risk of decline in ADLs [odds ratio (OR) 0.093; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.052-0.164; P<0.0001], and with a less prevalent increase in the degree of frailty (OR 0.229; 95% CI 0.131-0.400; P<0.0001). When ADLs were classified into three strata (independence, instrumental ADL-dependence, and personal ADL-dependence), changes to a more dependence-associated stratum were less prevalent in the intervention group (OR 0.194; 95% CI 0.085-0.444; P=0.0001). There was no significant difference between the groups in increased use of municipal help services (OR 0.682; 95% CI 0.395-1.178; P=0.170). CONCLUSION: Acute care of frail elderly patients in a CGA unit was independently associated with lesser loss of functional ability and lesser increase in frailty after 3 months.

Is the acute care of frail elderly patients in a comprehensive geriatric assessment unit superior to conventional acute medical care?

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate whether the acute care of frail elderly patients in a comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA) unit is superior to the care in a conventional acute medical care unit. DESIGN: This is a clinical, prospective, randomized, controlled, one-center intervention study. SETTING: This study was conducted in a large county hospital in western Sweden. PARTICIPANTS: The study included 408 frail elderly patients, aged ≥75 years, in need of acute in-hospital treatment. The patients were allocated to the intervention group (n=206) or control group (n=202). Mean age of the patients was 85.7 years, and 56% were female. INTERVENTION: This organizational form of care is characterized by a structured, systematic interdisciplinary CGA-based care at an acute elderly care unit. MEASUREMENTS: The primary outcome was the change in health-related quality of life (HRQoL) 3 months after discharge from hospital, measured by the Health Utilities Index-3 (HUI-3). Secondary outcomes were all-cause mortality, rehospitalizations, and hospital care costs. RESULTS: After adjustment by regression analysis, patients in the intervention group were less likely to present with decline in HRQoL after 3 months for the following dimensions: vision (odds ratio [OR] =0.33, 95% confidence interval [CI] =0.14-0.79), ambulation (OR =0.19, 95% CI =0.1-0.37), dexterity (OR =0.38, 95% CI =0.19-0.75), emotion (OR =0.43, 95% CI =0.22-0.84), cognition (OR = 0.076, 95% CI =0.033-0.18) and pain (OR =0.28, 95% CI =0.15-0.50). Treatment in a CGA unit was independently associated with lower 3-month mortality adjusted by Cox regression analysis (hazard ratio [HR] =0.55, 95% CI =0.32-0.96), and the two groups did not differ significantly in terms of hospital care costs (P>0.05). CONCLUSION: Patients in an acute CGA unit were less likely to present with decline in HRQoL after 3 months, and the care in a CGA unit was also independently associated with lower mortality, at no higher cost.

Non-medical costs during the first year after diagnosis in two cohorts of patients with early rheumatoid arthritis, enrolled 10 years apart.

The aim of the present study was to calculate non-medical costs during year 1 after diagnosis in two cohorts of patients with early rheumatoid arthritis enrolled 1996-1998 and 2006-2009. Clinical data were collected regularly in both cohorts. Besides information about healthcare utilization and days lost from work, patients reported non-medical costs for aids/devices, transportation, formal and informal care. Formal care was valued as full labour cost for official home help (€42.80/h) and informal care from relatives and friends as opportunity cost of leisure time, corresponding to 35% of labour cost (€15/h). In both cohorts, only 2% used formal care, while more than 50% used informal care. Prescription of aids/devices was more frequent in cohort 2 and more women than men needed aids/devices. Help with transportation was also more common in cohort 2. Women in both cohorts needed more informal care than men, especially with personal care and household issues. Adjusting for covariates in regression models, female sex remained associated with higher costs in both cohorts. Non-medical costs in cohort 2 were €1892, €1575 constituting informal care, corresponding to 83% of non-medical costs. Total non-medical costs constituted 25% of total direct costs and 11% of total direct and indirect costs. Informal care accounted for the largest part of non-medical costs and women had higher costs than men. Despite established social welfare system, it is obvious that family and friends, to a large extent, are involved in informal care of patients with early RA, and this may underestimate the total burden of the disease.

Long-Term Evaluation of the Ambulatory Geriatric Assessment: A Frailty Intervention Trial (AGe-FIT): Clinical Outcomes and Total Costs After 36 Months.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects of care based on comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA) as a complement to usual care in an outpatient setting with those of usual care alone. The assessment was performed 36 months after study inclusion. DESIGN: Randomized, controlled, assessor-blinded, single-center trial. SETTING: A geriatric ambulatory unit in a municipality in the southeast of Sweden. PARTICIPANTS: Community-dwelling individuals aged ≥ 75 years who had received inpatient hospital care 3 or more times in the past 12 months and had 3 or more concomitant medical diagnoses were eligible for study inclusion. Participants were randomized to the intervention group (IG) or control group (CG). INTERVENTION: Participants in the IG received CGA-based care for 24 to 31 months at the geriatric ambulatory unit in addition to usual care. OUTCOME MEASURES: Mortality, transfer to nursing home, days in hospital, and total costs of health and social care after 36 months. RESULTS: Mean age (SD) of participants was 82.5 (4.9) years. Participants in the IG (n = 208) lived 69 days longer than did those in the CG (n = 174); 27.9% (n = 58) of participants in the IG and 38.5% (n = 67) in the CG died (hazard ratio 1.49, 95% confidence interval 1.05-2.12, P = .026). The mean number of inpatient days was lower in the IG (15.1 [SD 18.4]) than in the CG (21.0 [SD 25.0], P = .01). Mean overall costs during the 36-month period did not differ between the IG and CG (USD 71,905 [SD 85,560] and USD 65,626 [SD 66,338], P = .43). CONCLUSIONS: CGA-based care resulted in longer survival and fewer days in hospital, without significantly higher cost, at 3 years after baseline. These findings add to the evidence of CGA's superiority over usual care in outpatient settings. As CGA-based care leads to important positive outcomes, this method should be used more extensively in the treatment of older people to meet their needs.

Differences between hypothetical and experience-based value sets for EQ-5D used in Sweden: Implications for decision makers.

AIMS: A number of value sets are available today for converting EQ-5D questionnaire responses to quality-adjusted life year-weights used in health economic evaluations. The aim of this study is to analyse the differences between the commonly used hypothetical UK value set and the newly introduced Swedish experience-based value set and to evaluate health economic implications of such differences on policy decisions. METHODS: Differences between the two value sets were studied using two methods: a comparison of health states and improvements as well as an empirical comparison. In the comparison of health states and improvements, the valuations of all EQ-5D states and all pure improvements were compared. In the empirical study, a database of 23,925 individuals was used to identify patient groups that could be affected by the implementation of the Swedish experience-based value set. RESULTS: The comparison of health states and possible improvements showed that only three health states were assigned a lower quality-adjusted life year-weight and most improvements were given smaller absolute values if the experience-based value set was used. The empirical comparison showed that severe conditions were assigned higher values when using the experience-based value set. CONCLUSIONS: The Swedish experience-based value set seems to render a higher estimated level of health-related quality of life in virtually all health conditions compared to the hypothetical UK value set. In extension, health-related quality of life enhancing interventions are likely to be given higher priority in decision-making situations where hypothetical values are used to construct quality-adjusted life year-weights. In situations where experience-based quality-adjusted life year-weights are used, life-prolonging interventions would be prioritised.

Physician Preferences and Variations in Prescription of Biologic Drugs for Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Register-Based Study of 4,010 Patients in Sweden.

OBJECTIVE: The prescription of biologic drugs for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients has varied considerably across different regions. Previous studies have shown physician preferences to be an important determinant in the decision to select biologic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (bDMARDs) rather than nonbiologic, synthetic DMARDs (sDMARDs) alone. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that physician preferences are an important determinant for prescribing bDMARDs for RA patients in Sweden. METHODS: Using data from the Swedish Rheumatology Quality Register, we identified 4,010 RA patients who were not prescribed bDMARDs during the period 2008-2012, but who, on at least 1 occasion, had an sDMARD prescription and changed treatment for the first time to either a new sDMARD or a bDMARD. Physician preference for the use of bDMARDs was calculated using data on each physician's prescriptions during the study period. The relationship between prescription of a bDMARD and physician preference, controlling for patient characteristics, disease activity, and the physician's local context was evaluated using multivariate logistic regression. RESULTS: When adjusting for patient characteristics, disease activity, and the physician's local context, physician preference was an important predictor for prescription of bDMARDs. Compared with patients of a physician in the lowest preference tertile, patients of physicians in the highest and middle tertiles had an odds ratio for receiving bDMARDs of 2.8 (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 2.13-3.68) and 1.28 (95% CI 1.05-1.57), respectively. CONCLUSION: Physician preference is an important determinant for prescribing bDMARDs.