Motivated reasoning about climate change and the influence of Numeracy, Need for Cognition, and the Dark Factor of Personality.

Human information processing is not always rational but influenced by prior attitudes, a phenomenon commonly known as motivated reasoning. We conducted two studies (N1 = 556, N2 = 1198; UK samples) investigating motivated reasoning in the context of climate change with a focus on individual differences as potential moderating factors. While previous research investigated motivated reasoning regarding the debate whether climate change is anthropogenic, we focused on current discourses about the effectiveness of different countermeasures. To this end, participants evaluated fictitious scientific data on the effectiveness of regulations to reduce CO2 emissions. In both studies, participants exhibited motivated reasoning as indicated by the observation that prior attitudes about CO2 reduction policies predicted evaluation of the scientific data. The degree of motivated reasoning was not related to individual difference variables, namely the ability to understand and reason with numbers (Numeracy), the willingness to show this ability (Need for Cognition), and the tendency to maximize one's individual utility (Dark Factor of Personality). However, numeracy was associated with a less biased interpretation of the presented information. Our research demonstrates that motivated reasoning is a general phenomenon, and points to numerical training as one way to improve reasoning.

Attitudes towards AI: measurement and associations with personality.

Artificial intelligence (AI) has become an integral part of many contemporary technologies, such as social media platforms, smart devices, and global logistics systems. At the same time, research on the public acceptance of AI shows that many people feel quite apprehensive about the potential of such technologies-an observation that has been connected to both demographic and sociocultural user variables (e.g., age, previous media exposure). Yet, due to divergent and often ad-hoc measurements of AI-related attitudes, the current body of evidence remains inconclusive. Likewise, it is still unclear if attitudes towards AI are also affected by users' personality traits. In response to these research gaps, we offer a two-fold contribution. First, we present a novel, psychologically informed questionnaire (ATTARI-12) that captures attitudes towards AI as a single construct, independent of specific contexts or applications. Having observed good reliability and validity for our new measure across two studies (N1 = 490; N2 = 150), we examine several personality traits-the Big Five, the Dark Triad, and conspiracy mentality-as potential predictors of AI-related attitudes in a third study (N3 = 298). We find that agreeableness and younger age predict a more positive view towards artificially intelligent technology, whereas the susceptibility to conspiracy beliefs connects to a more negative attitude. Our findings are discussed considering potential limitations and future directions for research and practice.

Approaching psychology's current crises by exploring the vagueness of psychological concepts: Recommendations for advancing the discipline.

Psychology is currently facing a multilayered crisis stemming from the fact that the results of many psychological studies cannot be replicated (replication crisis), that psychological research has neglected cross-cultural and cross-temporal variation (universality crisis), and that many psychological theories are ill-developed and underspecified (theory crisis). In the present article, we use ideas derived from debates in theoretical and philosophical psychology as a basis for responding to all three crises. In short, we claim that psychological concepts are inherently vague in the sense that their meanings and the rules for their application are indeterminate. This does not imply that psychological concepts are ineffable or lack meaning. It implies, however, that hoping to arrive at a finite set of necessary and sufficient criteria that define psychological concepts once and for all is an illusion. From this, we deduce four recommendations for responding to psychology's crises. First, we argue that the replication crisis could be approached by paying more attention to the context conditions under which psychological realities and knowledge about these realities are being created. Second, we claim that the universality crisis can be alleviated by putting more effort into exploring variability across times and cultures. Third, we contend that acknowledging the language dependence of psychological research could be a fruitful way of addressing the theory crisis. Last, we show that embracing theoretical and methodological pluralism would be an antidote against psychology's crises in general. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Post-truth epistemic beliefs rooted in the Dark Factor of Personality are associated with higher COVID-19 vaccination refusal.

A substantial number of people refused to get vaccinated against COVID-19, which prompts the question as to why. We focus on the role of individual worldviews about the nature and generation of knowledge (epistemic beliefs). We propose a model that includes epistemic beliefs, their relationship to the Dark Factor of Personality (D), and their mutual effect on the probability of having been vaccinated against COVID-19. Based on a US nationally representative sample (N = 1268), we show that stronger endorsement of post-truth epistemic beliefs was associated with a lower probability of having been vaccinated against COVID-19. D was also linked to a lower probability of having been vaccinated against COVID-19, which can be explained by post-truth epistemic beliefs. Our results indicate that the more individuals deliberately refrain from adhering to the better argument, the less likely they are vaccinated. More generally, post-truth epistemic beliefs pose a challenge for rational communication.

Remembering beloved objects from early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence and the role of the five senses.

ABSTRACTBeloved objects are cherished and valued possessions that we feel attached to. Previous research has demonstrated that the functions of beloved objects change across a lifespan. However, beloved objects may not only be appreciated because of their functions but also because of their sensory qualities. We hypothesised that the sensory experiences with beloved objects show a developmental trajectory and that the proximal senses (touch, taste, smell) become less important across childhood and adolescence, while the distant senses (vision, hearing) become more important. Moreover, we assumed that the observed changes in the sensory experiences are associated with the corresponding changes of functions across life stages. Building on the idea that those (perceptual) aspects of our environment that are particularly important to us are preferentially stored in memory, we hypothesised that this developmental trajectory would also be reflected in retrospective accounts. Hence, participants (N = 225) were asked to remember beloved objects from early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence, to describe their functions and to answer questions regarding their sensory experiences with the objects. The mixed methods data analyses confirmed our hypotheses. Taken together, our study illustrates and underlines the importance of beloved objects for thinking, behaviour, memory, and identity.

Beliefs about the nature of knowledge shape responses to the pandemic: Epistemic beliefs, the Dark Factor of Personality, and COVID-19-related conspiracy ideation and behavior.

OBJECTIVE: Global challenges such as climate change or the COVID-19 pandemic have drawn public attention to conspiracy theories and citizens' non-compliance to science-based behavioral guidelines. We focus on individuals' worldviews about how one can and should construct reality (epistemic beliefs) to explain the endorsement of conspiracy theories and behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic and propose the Dark Factor of Personality (D) as an antecedent of post-truth epistemic beliefs. METHOD AND RESULTS: This model is tested in four pre-registered studies. In Study 1 (N = 321), we found first evidence for a positive association between D and post-truth epistemic beliefs (Faith in Intuition for Facts, Need for Evidence, Truth is Political). In Study 2 (N = 453), we tested the model proper by further showing that post-truth epistemic beliefs predict the endorsement of COVID-19 conspiracies and disregarding COVID-19 behavioral guidelines. Study 3 (N = 923) largely replicated these results at a later stage of the pandemic. Finally, in Study 4 (N = 513), we replicated the results in a German sample, corroborating their cross-cultural validity. Interactions with political orientation were observed. CONCLUSION: Our research highlights that epistemic beliefs need to be taken into account when addressing major challenges to humankind.

The effect of induced COVID-19-related fear on psychological distance and time perception.

Emotional experience can influence cognitive estimates such as perceived psychological distance and time judgements. These estimators are crucial in threatening situations like the COVID-19 pandemic because the subjective perception of the closeness of a potential infection might influence behaviour. However, to date it remains unclear how fear affects these estimates. We report on data from N = 183 participants collected in Germany during the summer of 2020, when a "second wave" of COVID-19 infections was still only on the horizon of public awareness. We induced COVID-19-related fear in members of one group and compared their estimates of psychological distance and time judgements to those of a neutral group. Fear induction influenced these conjoint estimates in the way that an increase in infection rates appeared farther away and of shorter duration. Mediation analysis revealed inverse effects of changes in valence and ratings of Fear of COVID-19 on psychological distance. Possible explanations for these effects are discussed.

"It is the beautiful things that let us live": How engaging in creative activities outside of standardized interventions helps family members of persons with Dementia.

Creative activities can have profound positive effects on family members of persons with dementia. Typically, these effects have been studied in the context of standardized arts-based interventions. However, family members of persons with dementia may also engage in creative activities outside of standardized interventions. As these kinds of creative activities have not been investigated so far, the present study tried to fill this gap based on seven semi-structured interviews. The interviews were analysed using qualitative content analysis. The participants reported a wide range of activities that included, but were not limited to, prototypical creative activities such as making music and writing. Crucially, the positive effects extended beyond the experience of engaging in the activities themselves and also included significant changes in cognitions, emotions and behaviour that helped the participants to make meaning of the challenges and difficulties that are associated with the dementia diagnosis of a loved one.

The role of motivated science reception and numeracy in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.

The successful management of the COVID-19 pandemic depends on individuals accepting the current state of research and adhering to the preventive behaviors that follow from it. However, the processing of scientific results is not always rational, but influenced by prior attitudes as well as the ability to understand statistical data. Against this background, this study investigated the role of motivated reasoning and numeracy in the context of the current pandemic. To this end, participants (N = 417; US sample) evaluated two fictitious studies, one indicating that mask mandates in schools are an effective intervention to contain the spread of SARS-CoV-2, and one indicating that mask mandates in schools are counterproductive. Participants evaluated the studies in line with their prior attitude toward mask mandates. In addition, higher numeracy was associated with decreased bias, demonstrating that the ability to reason with numbers can lead to more accurate processing of statistical information.

Putting Stress in Historical Context: Why It Is Important That Being Stressed Out Was Not a Way to Be a Person 2,000 Years Ago.

It was not until the middle of the twentieth century that scientists and Western societies began to label the combination of physiological and psychological responses that people display when things are getting too much and out of balance as "stress." However, stress is commonly understood as a universal mechanism that exists across times and cultures. In a certain sense, this universality claim is correct: the physiological and endocrinological mechanisms underlying the stress response are not a modern invention of our body. In another sense, the universality claim is potentially problematic: stress has become, but has not always been, a way to be a person. That is, the social practices, in which the physiological and endocrinological stress mechanisms are embedded, are not the same across times and cultures. Crucially, these social practices are not a negligible by-product, but form an essential part of the way stress is commonly understood and experienced. Against this background, one may still decide to use the word "stress" when speaking about other times and cultures. Nevertheless, one should at least be cautious when doing so for three reasons. First, using the word "stress" when referring to societies different from our own may create the impression of a similarity between then and now, which does not actually exist. Second, it may blind us to the nature of the differences between times and cultures. Third, it naturalizes a contemporary scientific concept, which is more adequately viewed as the result of complex social, historical, and societal processes. Putting the stress concept in historical context and acknowledging that its use emerged in a specific historical environment enables us to take a step back and to think about the ways that stress shapes our lives. In other words, viewing stress as a culture-bound concept can give us the possibility to reflect upon our modern societies, in which the concept emerged.

Do you remember? Similarities and differences between the earliest childhood memories for the five senses.

We perceive the world with our five senses. However, the role that these five senses play in early childhood memories has received relatively little attention. Against this background, participants (N = 117) were asked to write down their earliest childhood memories for the five senses and to answer additional questions regarding these memories. There was no significant difference between the five senses regarding the percentage of participants reporting a memory or between the valence and the subjective reliability of the reported memories. However, memories reported for sight were marginally longer, from a younger age, and estimated to be more important compared to memories reported for the other senses. A qualitative content analysis revealed that the vast majority of the reported memories fell into a limited number of categories. Interestingly, several categories played a role in more than one sense. Nevertheless, the reported memories also mirrored the characteristic properties that one is able to perceive with each sense. Overall, the findings support the notion that sight is the dominant sense. At the same time, they remind us that each sense provides us with unique information about ourselves and the world around us.

Understanding the self of people with dementia : Psychological and philosophical considerations.

BACKGROUND: The ability to create and maintain an ongoing life narrative is a key characteristic of what makes us human; however, people with dementia lose this ability in the course of the disease. If the notion of having a self is intimately linked with being able to create and maintain a life narrative and if people with dementia tend to lose this ability, what kind of self do people with dementia still possess? OBJECTIVE AND METHODS: Recent theories developed in psychology and philosophy suggest that at least two notions of the self have to be distinguished: the experiencing self and the remembering self. This distinction is applied to people with dementia. RESULTS: While the remembering self is impaired in people with dementia, their experiencing self remains relatively intact. Critically, the experiencing self is a self with inner depth, mirroring the life history of the individual. Thus, the self of people with dementia is not unextended in time. Although people with dementia may have lost the ability to tell a story about their life, they are still able to express this story in their behavior. CONCLUSION: Understanding the structure of the self of people with dementia can help guide interactions as well as the designing of appropriate interventions and environments. Moreover, realizing the inner depth of the self of people with dementia may help acknowledge their dignity and personhood.

Does the Attentional Boost Effect Depend on the Intentionality of Encoding? Investigating the Mechanisms Underlying Memory for Visual Objects Presented at Behaviorally Relevant Moments in Time.

Pictures in a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) stream are better remembered when they are simultaneously presented with targets of an unrelated detection task than when they are presented with distractors. However, it is unclear whether this so-called "attentional boost effect" depends on the intentionality of encoding. While there are studies suggesting that the attentional boost effect even occurs when encoding is incidental, there are several methodological issues with these studies, which may have undermined the incidental encoding instructions. The present study (N = 141) investigated the role of the intentionality of encoding with an improved experimental design. Specifically, to prevent a spill-over of intentional resources to the pictures in the RSVP stream, the speed of the stream was increased (to four pictures per second) and each picture was presented only once during the course of the experiment. An attentional boost effect was only found when encoding was intentional but not when encoding was incidental. Interestingly, memory performance for incidentally encoded pictures was nevertheless substantially above chance, independently of whether images were presented with search-relevant targets or distractors. These results suggest that the attentional boost effect is a memory advantage that occurs only under intentional encoding conditions, and that perceptual long-term memory representations are formed as a natural product of perception, independently of the presence of behaviorally relevant events.

Detailed long-term memory for unattended, irrelevant, and incidentally encoded auditory information.

At any moment, a myriad of information reaches our senses, of which only a small fraction is attentively processed. A long-held belief is that unattended information is only weakly processed if attentional demands are high and the unattended information is irrelevant, leaving no recognizable trace in long-term memory. The present study challenges this assumption. Participants (N = 51) were simultaneously presented with a rapid visual stream of words and an auditory stream of everyday sounds, with the instruction to attend to the visual stream and detect word repetitions, and to avoid distraction by the irrelevant sounds. No mention was made that their memory would be tested later. Memory for the sounds was tested in a surprise two-alternative forced choice recognition test with similar foil sounds. Half of the sounds were tested immediately after encoding, the other half after a delay of 24 hr. Memory performance was substantially above chance in both the immediate and the 24-hr delayed test, without significant forgetting across time. These results demonstrate that detailed and durable long-term memory representations are formed for unattended and irrelevant information that is incidentally encoded in a different sensory modality than the attended information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Why Is There So Much More Research on Vision Than on Any Other Sensory Modality?

Why is there so much more research on vision than on any other sensory modality? There is a seemingly easy answer to this question: It is because vision is our most important and most complex sense. Although there are arguments in favor of this explanation, it can be challenged in two ways: by showing that the arguments regarding the importance and complexity of vision are debatable and by demonstrating that there are other aspects that need to be taken into account. Here, I argue that the explanation is debatable, as there are various ways of defining "importance" and "complexity" and, as there is no clear consensus that vision is indeed the most important and most complex of our senses. Hence, I propose two additional explanations: According to the methodological-structural explanation, there is more research on vision because the available, present-day technology is better suited for studying vision than for studying other modalities - an advantage which most likely is the result of an initial bias toward vision, which reinforces itself. Possible reasons for such an initial bias are discussed. The cultural explanation emphasizes that the dominance of the visual is not an unchangeable constant, but rather the result of the way our societies are designed and thus heavily influenced by human decision-making. As it turns out, there is no universal hierarchy of the senses, but great historical and cross-cultural variation. Realizing that the dominance of the visual is socially and culturally reinforced and not simply a law of nature, gives us the opportunity to take a step back and to think about the kind of sensory environments we want to create and about the kinds of theories that need to be developed in research.

Long-Term Memory for Haptically Explored Objects: Fidelity, Durability, Incidental Encoding, and Cross-Modal Transfer.

The question of how many of our perceptual experiences are stored in long-term memory has received considerable attention. The present study examined long-term memory for haptic experiences. Blindfolded participants haptically explored 168 everyday objects (e.g., a pen) for 10 s each. In a blindfolded memory test, they indicated which of two objects from the same basic-level category (e.g., two different pens) had been touched before. As shown in Experiment 1 (N = 26), memory was nearly perfect when tested immediately after exploration (94%) and still high when tested after 1 week (85%). As shown in Experiment 2 (N = 43), when participants explored the objects without the intention to memorize them, memory in a 1-week delayed surprise test was still high (79%), even when assessed with a cross-modal visual memory test (73%). These results indicate that detailed, durable, long-term memory representations are stored as a natural product of haptic perception.