Munc13- and SNAP25-dependent molecular bridges play a key role in synaptic vesicle priming.

Synaptic vesicle tethering, priming, and neurotransmitter release require a coordinated action of multiple protein complexes. While physiological experiments, interaction data, and structural studies of purified systems were essential for our understanding of the function of the individual complexes involved, they cannot resolve how the actions of individual complexes integrate. We used cryo-electron tomography to simultaneously image multiple presynaptic protein complexes and lipids at molecular resolution in their native composition, conformation, and environment. Our detailed morphological characterization suggests that sequential synaptic vesicle states precede neurotransmitter release, where Munc13-comprising bridges localize vesicles <10 nanometers and soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein 25-comprising bridges <5 nanometers from the plasma membrane, the latter constituting a molecularly primed state. Munc13 activation supports the transition to the primed state via vesicle bridges to plasma membrane (tethers), while protein kinase C promotes the same transition by reducing vesicle interlinking. These findings exemplify a cellular function performed by an extended assembly comprising multiple molecularly diverse complexes.

Munc13 supports fusogenicity of non-docked vesicles at synapses with disrupted active zones.

Active zones consist of protein scaffolds that are tightly attached to the presynaptic plasma membrane. They dock and prime synaptic vesicles, couple them to voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, and direct neurotransmitter release toward postsynaptic receptor domains. Simultaneous RIM + ELKS ablation disrupts these scaffolds, abolishes vesicle docking, and removes active zone-targeted Munc13, but some vesicles remain releasable. To assess whether this enduring vesicular fusogenicity is mediated by non-active zone-anchored Munc13 or is Munc13-independent, we ablated Munc13-1 and Munc13-2 in addition to RIM + ELKS in mouse hippocampal neurons. The hextuple knockout synapses lacked docked vesicles, but other ultrastructural features were near-normal despite the strong genetic manipulation. Removing Munc13 in addition to RIM + ELKS impaired action potential-evoked vesicle fusion more strongly than RIM + ELKS knockout by further decreasing the releasable vesicle pool. Hence, Munc13 can support some fusogenicity without RIM and ELKS, and presynaptic recruitment of Munc13, even without active zone anchoring, suffices to generate some fusion-competent vesicles.

Molecular and functional architecture of striatal dopamine release sites.

Despite the importance of dopamine for striatal circuit function, mechanistic understanding of dopamine transmission remains incomplete. We recently showed that dopamine secretion relies on the presynaptic scaffolding protein RIM, indicating that it occurs at active zone-like sites similar to classical synaptic vesicle exocytosis. Here, we establish using a systematic gene knockout approach that Munc13 and Liprin-α, active zone proteins for vesicle priming and release site organization, are important for dopamine secretion. Furthermore, RIM zinc finger and C2B domains, which bind to Munc13 and Liprin-α, respectively, are needed to restore dopamine release after RIM ablation. In contrast, and different from typical synapses, the active zone scaffolds RIM-BP and ELKS, and RIM domains that bind to them, are expendable. Hence, dopamine release necessitates priming and release site scaffolding by RIM, Munc13, and Liprin-α, but other active zone proteins are dispensable. Our work establishes that efficient release site architecture mediates fast dopamine exocytosis.

An active vesicle priming machinery suppresses axon regeneration upon adult CNS injury.

Axons in the adult mammalian central nervous system fail to regenerate after spinal cord injury. Neurons lose their capacity to regenerate during development, but the intracellular processes underlying this loss are unclear. We found that critical components of the presynaptic active zone prevent axon regeneration in adult mice. Transcriptomic analysis combined with live-cell imaging revealed that adult primary sensory neurons downregulate molecular constituents of the synapse as they acquire the ability to rapidly grow their axons. Pharmacogenetic reduction of neuronal excitability stimulated axon regeneration after adult spinal cord injury. Genetic gain- and loss-of-function experiments uncovered that essential synaptic vesicle priming proteins of the presynaptic active zone, but not clostridial-toxin-sensitive VAMP-family SNARE proteins, inhibit axon regeneration. Systemic administration of Baclofen reduced voltage-dependent Ca2+ influx in primary sensory neurons and promoted their regeneration after spinal cord injury. These findings indicate that functional presynaptic active zones constitute a major barrier to axon regeneration.

Synaptotagmin-7 places dense-core vesicles at the cell membrane to promote Munc13-2- and Ca2+-dependent priming.

Synaptotagmins confer calcium-dependence to the exocytosis of secretory vesicles, but how coexpressed synaptotagmins interact remains unclear. We find that synaptotagmin-1 and synaptotagmin-7 when present alone act as standalone fast and slow Ca2+-sensors for vesicle fusion in mouse chromaffin cells. When present together, synaptotagmin-1 and synaptotagmin-7 are found in largely non-overlapping clusters on dense-core vesicles. Synaptotagmin-7 stimulates Ca2+-dependent vesicle priming and inhibits depriming, and it promotes ubMunc13-2- and phorbolester-dependent priming, especially at low resting calcium concentrations. The priming effect of synaptotagmin-7 increases the number of vesicles fusing via synaptotagmin-1, while negatively affecting their fusion speed, indicating both synergistic and competitive interactions between synaptotagmins. Synaptotagmin-7 places vesicles in close membrane apposition (<6 nm); without it, vesicles accumulate out of reach of the fusion complex (20-40 nm). We suggest that a synaptotagmin-7-dependent movement toward the membrane is involved in Munc13-2/phorbolester/Ca2+-dependent priming as a prelude to fast and slow exocytosis triggering.

Choanoflagellates and the ancestry of neurosecretory vesicles.

Neurosecretory vesicles are highly specialized trafficking organelles that store neurotransmitters that are released at presynaptic nerve endings and are, therefore, important for animal cell-cell signalling. Despite considerable anatomical and functional diversity of neurons in animals, the protein composition of neurosecretory vesicles in bilaterians appears to be similar. This similarity points towards a common evolutionary origin. Moreover, many putative homologues of key neurosecretory vesicle proteins predate the origin of the first neurons, and some even the origin of the first animals. However, little is known about the molecular toolkit of these vesicles in non-bilaterian animals and their closest unicellular relatives, making inferences about the evolutionary origin of neurosecretory vesicles extremely difficult. By comparing 28 proteins of the core neurosecretory vesicle proteome in 13 different species, we demonstrate that most of the proteins are present in unicellular organisms. Surprisingly, we find that the vesicular membrane-associated soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor protein synaptobrevin is localized to the vesicle-rich apical and basal pole in the choanoflagellate Salpingoeca rosetta. Our 3D vesicle reconstructions reveal that the choanoflagellates S. rosetta and Monosiga brevicollis exhibit a polarized and diverse vesicular landscape reminiscent of the polarized organization of chemical synapses that secrete the content of neurosecretory vesicles into the synaptic cleft. This study sheds light on the ancestral molecular machinery of neurosecretory vesicles and provides a framework to understand the origin and evolution of secretory cells, synapses and neurons. This article is part of the theme issue 'Basal cognition: multicellularity, neurons and the cognitive lens'.

Ultrastructural Imaging of Activity-Dependent Synaptic Membrane-Trafficking Events in Cultured Brain Slices.

Electron microscopy can resolve synapse ultrastructure with nanometer precision, but the capture of time-resolved, activity-dependent synaptic membrane-trafficking events has remained challenging, particularly in functionally distinct synapses in a tissue context. We present a method that combines optogenetic stimulation-coupled cryofixation ("flash-and-freeze") and electron microscopy to visualize membrane trafficking events and synapse-state-specific changes in presynaptic vesicle organization with high spatiotemporal resolution in synapses of cultured mouse brain tissue. With our experimental workflow, electrophysiological and "flash-and-freeze" electron microscopy experiments can be performed under identical conditions in artificial cerebrospinal fluid alone, without the addition of external cryoprotectants, which are otherwise needed to allow adequate tissue preservation upon freezing. Using this approach, we reveal depletion of docked vesicles and resolve compensatory membrane recycling events at individual presynaptic active zones at hippocampal mossy fiber synapses upon sustained stimulation.

Ultrastructural Correlates of Presynaptic Functional Heterogeneity in Hippocampal Synapses.

Although similar in molecular composition, synapses can exhibit strikingly distinct functional transmitter release and plasticity characteristics. To determine whether ultrastructural differences co-define this functional heterogeneity, we combine hippocampal organotypic slice cultures, high-pressure freezing, freeze substitution, and 3D-electron tomography to compare two functionally distinct synapses: hippocampal Schaffer collateral and mossy fiber synapses. We find that mossy fiber synapses, which exhibit a lower release probability and stronger short-term facilitation than Schaffer collateral synapses, harbor lower numbers of docked synaptic vesicles at active zones and a second pool of possibly tethered vesicles in their vicinity. Our data indicate that differences in the ratio of docked versus tethered vesicles at active zones contribute to distinct functional characteristics of synapses.

The Synaptic Vesicle Priming Protein CAPS-1 Shapes the Adaptation of Sensory Evoked Responses in Mouse Visual Cortex.

Short-term plasticity gates information transfer across neuronal synapses and is thought to be involved in fundamental brain processes, such as cortical gain control and sensory adaptation. Neurons employ synaptic vesicle priming proteins of the CAPS and Munc13 families to shape short-term plasticity in vitro, but the relevance of this phenomenon for information processing in the intact brain is unknown. By combining sensory stimulation with in vivo patch-clamp recordings in anesthetized mice, we show that genetic deletion of CAPS-1 in thalamic neurons results in more rapid adaptation of sensory-evoked subthreshold responses in layer 4 neurons of the primary visual cortex. Optogenetic experiments in acute brain slices further reveal that the enhanced adaptation is caused by more pronounced short-term synaptic depression. Our data indicate that neurons engage CAPS-family priming proteins to shape short-term plasticity for optimal sensory information transfer between thalamic and cortical neurons in the intact brain in vivo.

CtBP1-Mediated Membrane Fission Contributes to Effective Recycling of Synaptic Vesicles.

Compensatory endocytosis of released synaptic vesicles (SVs) relies on coordinated signaling at the lipid-protein interface. Here, we address the synaptic function of C-terminal binding protein 1 (CtBP1), a ubiquitous regulator of gene expression and membrane trafficking in cultured hippocampal neurons. In the absence of CtBP1, synapses form in greater density and show changes in SV distribution and size. The increased basal neurotransmission and enhanced synaptic depression could be attributed to a higher vesicular release probability and a smaller fraction of release-competent SVs, respectively. Rescue experiments with specifically targeted constructs indicate that, while synaptogenesis and release probability are controlled by nuclear CtBP1, the efficient recycling of SVs relies on its synaptic expression. The ability of presynaptic CtBP1 to facilitate compensatory endocytosis depends on its membrane-fission activity and the activation of the lipid-metabolizing enzyme PLD1. Thus, CtBP1 regulates SV recycling by promoting a permissive lipid environment for compensatory endocytosis.

SynGO: An Evidence-Based, Expert-Curated Knowledge Base for the Synapse.

Synapses are fundamental information-processing units of the brain, and synaptic dysregulation is central to many brain disorders ("synaptopathies"). However, systematic annotation of synaptic genes and ontology of synaptic processes are currently lacking. We established SynGO, an interactive knowledge base that accumulates available research about synapse biology using Gene Ontology (GO) annotations to novel ontology terms: 87 synaptic locations and 179 synaptic processes. SynGO annotations are exclusively based on published, expert-curated evidence. Using 2,922 annotations for 1,112 genes, we show that synaptic genes are exceptionally well conserved and less tolerant to mutations than other genes. Many SynGO terms are significantly overrepresented among gene variations associated with intelligence, educational attainment, ADHD, autism, and bipolar disorder and among de novo variants associated with neurodevelopmental disorders, including schizophrenia. SynGO is a public, universal reference for synapse research and an online analysis platform for interpretation of large-scale -omics data (https://syngoportal.org and http://geneontology.org).

Complexin cooperates with Bruchpilot to tether synaptic vesicles to the active zone cytomatrix.

Information processing by the nervous system depends on neurotransmitter release from synaptic vesicles (SVs) at the presynaptic active zone. Molecular components of the cytomatrix at the active zone (CAZ) regulate the final stages of the SV cycle preceding exocytosis and thereby shape the efficacy and plasticity of synaptic transmission. Part of this regulation is reflected by a physical association of SVs with filamentous CAZ structures via largely unknown protein interactions. The very C-terminal region of Bruchpilot (Brp), a key component of the Drosophila melanogaster CAZ, participates in SV tethering. Here, we identify the conserved SNARE regulator Complexin (Cpx) in an in vivo screen for molecules that link the Brp C terminus to SVs. Brp and Cpx interact genetically and functionally. Both proteins promote SV recruitment to the Drosophila CAZ and counteract short-term synaptic depression. Analyzing SV tethering to active zone ribbons of cpx3 knockout mice supports an evolutionarily conserved role of Cpx upstream of SNARE complex assembly.

Formation and Maintenance of Functional Spines in the Absence of Presynaptic Glutamate Release.

Dendritic spines are the major transmitter reception compartments of glutamatergic synapses in most principal neurons of the mammalian brain and play a key role in the function of nerve cell circuits. The formation of functional spine synapses is thought to be critically dependent on presynaptic glutamatergic signaling. By analyzing CA1 pyramidal neurons in mutant hippocampal slice cultures that are essentially devoid of presynaptic transmitter release, we demonstrate that the formation and maintenance of dendrites and functional spines are independent of synaptic glutamate release.

3D Analysis of Synaptic Ultrastructure in Organotypic Hippocampal Slice Culture by High-Pressure Freezing and Electron Tomography.

Transmission electron microscopy serves as a valuable tool for synaptic structure-function analyses aimed at identifying morphological features or modifications associated with specific developmental stages or dysfunctional synaptic states. By utilizing cryo-preparation techniques to minimize the introduction of structural artifacts during sample preparation, and electron tomography to reconstruct the 3D ultrastructural architecture of a synapse, the spatial organization and morphological properties of synaptic organelles and subcompartments can be quantified with unparalleled precision. In this chapter, we present an experimental approach combining organotypic slice culture, high-pressure freezing, automated freeze-substitution, and electron tomography to investigate spatial relationships between synaptic vesicles and active zone release sites in synapses from lethal mouse mutants.

Complexin 3 Increases the Fidelity of Signaling in a Retinal Circuit by Regulating Exocytosis at Ribbon Synapses.

Complexin (Cplx) proteins modulate the core SNARE complex to regulate exocytosis. To understand the contributions of Cplx to signaling in a well-characterized neural circuit, we investigated how Cplx3, a retina-specific paralog, shapes transmission at rod bipolar (RB)→AII amacrine cell synapses in the mouse retina. Knockout of Cplx3 strongly attenuated fast, phasic Ca(2+)-dependent transmission, dependent on local [Ca(2+)] nanodomains, but enhanced slower Ca(2+)-dependent transmission, dependent on global intraterminal [Ca(2+)] ([Ca(2+)]I). Surprisingly, coordinated multivesicular release persisted at Cplx3(-/-) synapses, although its onset was slowed. Light-dependent signaling at Cplx3(-/-) RB→AII synapses was sluggish, owing largely to increased asynchronous release at light offset. Consequently, propagation of RB output to retinal ganglion cells was suppressed dramatically. Our study links Cplx3 expression with synapse and circuit function in a specific retinal pathway and reveals a role for asynchronous release in circuit gain control.

Identification of a Munc13-sensitive step in chromaffin cell large dense-core vesicle exocytosis.

It is currently unknown whether the molecular steps of large dense-core vesicle (LDCV) docking and priming are identical to the corresponding reactions in synaptic vesicle (SV) exocytosis. Munc13s are essential for SV docking and priming, and we systematically analyzed their role in LDCV exocytosis using chromaffin cells lacking individual isoforms. We show that particularly Munc13-2 plays a fundamental role in LDCV exocytosis, but in contrast to synapses lacking Munc13s, the corresponding chromaffin cells do not exhibit a vesicle docking defect. We further demonstrate that ubMunc13-2 and Munc13-1 confer Ca(2+)-dependent LDCV priming with similar affinities, but distinct kinetics. Using a mathematical model, we identify an early LDCV priming step that is strongly dependent upon Munc13s. Our data demonstrate that the molecular steps of SV and LDCV priming are very similar while SV and LDCV docking mechanisms are distinct.

The morphological and molecular nature of synaptic vesicle priming at presynaptic active zones.

Synaptic vesicle docking, priming, and fusion at active zones are orchestrated by a complex molecular machinery. We employed hippocampal organotypic slice cultures from mice lacking key presynaptic proteins, cryofixation, and three-dimensional electron tomography to study the mechanism of synaptic vesicle docking in the same experimental setting, with high precision, and in a near-native state. We dissected previously indistinguishable, sequential steps in synaptic vesicle active zone recruitment (tethering) and membrane attachment (docking) and found that vesicle docking requires Munc13/CAPS family priming proteins and all three neuronal SNAREs, but not Synaptotagmin-1 or Complexins. Our data indicate that membrane-attached vesicles comprise the readily releasable pool of fusion-competent vesicles and that synaptic vesicle docking, priming, and trans-SNARE complex assembly are the respective morphological, functional, and molecular manifestations of the same process, which operates downstream of vesicle tethering by active zone components.

Munc13-independent vesicle priming at mouse photoreceptor ribbon synapses.

Munc13 proteins are essential regulators of exocytosis. In hippocampal glutamatergic neurons, the genetic deletion of Munc13s results in the complete loss of primed synaptic vesicles (SVs) in direct contact with the presynaptic active zone membrane, and in a total block of neurotransmitter release. Similarly drastic consequences of Munc13 loss are detectable in hippocampal and striatal GABAergic neurons. We show here that, in the adult mouse retina, the two Munc13-2 splice variants bMunc13-2 and ubMunc13-2 are selectively localized to conventional and ribbon synapses, respectively, and that ubMunc13-2 is the only Munc13 isoform in mature photoreceptor ribbon synapses. Strikingly, the genetic deletion of ubMunc13-2 has little effect on synaptic signaling by photoreceptor ribbon synapses and does not prevent membrane attachment of synaptic vesicles at the photoreceptor ribbon synaptic site. Thus, photoreceptor ribbon synapses and conventional synapses differ fundamentally with regard to their dependence on SV priming proteins of the Munc13 family. Their function is only moderately affected by Munc13 loss, which leads to slight perturbations of signal integration in the retina.

Primordial neurosecretory apparatus identified in the choanoflagellate Monosiga brevicollis.

SNARE protein-driven secretion of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles is at the center of neuronal communication. In the absence of the cytosolic protein Munc18-1, synaptic secretion comes to a halt. Although it is believed that Munc18-1 orchestrates SNARE complexes, its mode of action is still a matter of debate. In particular, it has been challenging to clarify the role of a tight Munc18/syntaxin 1 complex, because this interaction interferes strongly with syntaxin's ability to form a SNARE complex. In this complex, two regions of syntaxin, the N-peptide and the remainder in closed conformation, bind to Munc18 simultaneously. Until now, this binary complex has been reported for neuronal tissues only, leading to the hypothesis that it might be a specialization of the neuronal secretion apparatus. Here we aimed, by comparing the core secretion machinery of the unicellular choanoflagellate Monosiga brevicollis with that of animals, to reconstruct the ancestral function of the Munc18/syntaxin1 complex. We found that the Munc18/syntaxin 1 complex from M. brevicollis is structurally and functionally highly similar to the vertebrate complex, suggesting that it constitutes a fundamental step in the reaction pathway toward SNARE assembly. We thus propose that the primordial secretion machinery of the common ancestor of choanoflagellates and animals has been co-opted for synaptic roles during the rise of animals.

Electron microscopy of the mouse central nervous system.

The high degree of similarity between mouse and human physiology and genomes makes mice the animal model of choice to study the functions and dysfunctions of the central nervous system (CNS). The considerable knowledge accumulated in the past decades and the steadily growing number of genetically modified mouse lines allow for the increasingly accurate understanding of biological circuits. Electron microscopy (EM) contributes to unravel the biology of neuronal networks and the myelinating glia by allowing a fine morphological scrutiny of the nervous tissue. We provide detailed descriptions of the conventional processing as well as cryopreparation methods such as high-pressure freezing (HPF), freeze-substitution (FS), and SDS-digested freeze-fracture replica labeling (SDS-FRL) on selected CNS regions such as the retina, optic nerve, and cerebellum. By taking example of the ribbon synapse in the retina and myelinated retinal ganglion cell axons of the optic nerve, we discuss the advantages and drawbacks of these methods in a comparative way.