The effects of Bone Morphogenetic Protein 4 on adult neural stem cell proliferation, differentiation and survival in an in vitro model of ischemic stroke.

The subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles represents a main region where neural stem cells (NSCs) of the mature central nervous system (CNS) reside. Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) are the largest subclass of the transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) superfamily of ligands. BMP4 is one such member and plays important roles in adult NSC differentiation. However, the exact effects of BMP4 on SVZ adult NSCs in CNS ischemia are still unknown. Using oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) as an in vitro model of ischemia, we examined the behavior of adult NSCs. We observed that anoxia resulted in reduced viability of adult NSCs, and that BMP4 treatment clearly rescued apoptotic cell death following anoxia. Furthermore, BMP4 treatment exhibited a strong inhibitory effect on cellular proliferation of the adult NSCs in normoxic conditions. Moreover, such inhibitory effects of BMP4 treatment were also found in OGD conditions, despite the enhanced cellular proliferation of the adult NSCs that was observed under such ischemic conditions. Increased neuronal and astroglial commitment of adult NSCs were found in the OGD conditions, whereas a reduction in differentiated neurons and an increase in differentiated astrocytes were observed following BMP4 treatment. The present data indicate that BMP4 modulates proliferation and differentiation of SVZ-derived adult NSCs and promotes cell survival in the in vitro model of ischemic stroke.

Protocol for mouse adult neural stem cell isolation and culture.

This protocol entails a simple method for isolation, culturing, and in vitro differentiation of adult neural stem cells from the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus and the subventricular zone of adult mice. Cultured adult neural stem cells are an important in vitro model to investigate stem cell properties such as proliferation and differentiation and to expand the understanding of plasticity in the adult brain. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Isaksen et al. (2020).

Proton-sensing receptor GPR132 facilitates migration of astrocytes.

Astrocytes are one of the first responders to central nervous system (CNS) injuries such as spinal cord injury (SCI). They are thought to repress injury-induced CNS inflammation as well as inhibit axonal regeneration. While reactive astrocytes migrate and accumulate around the lesion core, the mechanism of astrocyte migration towards the lesion site remains unclear. Here, we examined possible involvement of acidification of the lesion site and expression of proton-sensing receptors in astrocyte migration, both in mice models and in vitro. We found that the expression of several proton-sensing receptors was increased at the lesion site after SCI. Among these receptors, Gpr132 was expressed in primary cultured astrocytes and exhibited significant enhanced expression in acidic conditions in vitro. Furthermore, astrocyte motility was enhanced in acidic media and by Gpr132 activation. These results suggest that acidification of the lesion site facilitates astrocyte migration via the proton-sensing receptor Gpr132.

Repulsive Guidance Molecule A Regulates Adult Neurogenesis Via the Neogenin Receptor.

Repulsive guidance molecule A (RGMa) exhibits repulsive guidance of axonal growth and regulates neuronal differentiation during development of the mammalian brain. In this commentary, we describe the findings of our recent paper, "Repulsive Guidance Molecule A Suppresses Adult Neurogenesis," and discuss a possible model for RGMa suppression of newborn neurons that fail to properly migrate into the granular cell layer. In the study, we provided evidence that RGMa suppressed neurite growth and survival of newborn neurons in the adult dentate gyrus. This effect depends on the multifunctional Neogenin receptor expressed in adult neural stem cells through activation of the Rho-associated protein kinase leading to neurite growth inhibition and ultimately cell death. It should be noted that both RGMa and Neogenin interact with several well-described molecules, including bone morphogenetic proteins, that regulate neuronal development. Thus, it is likely that RGMa interacts with other intricate molecular networks that regulate adult neurogenesis.

Repulsive Guidance Molecule A Suppresses Adult Neurogenesis.

Repulsive guidance molecule A (RGMa) is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored glycoprotein that exhibits repulsive neurite guidance and regulates neuronal differentiation and survival during brain development. However, the function of RGMa in the adult brain is unknown. Here, we show that RGMa is expressed in the adult hippocampus and provide evidence that RGMa signaling suppresses adult neurogenesis. Knockdown of RGMa in the dentate gyrus increased the number of surviving newborn neurons; however, these cells failed to properly migrate into the granular cell layer. In vitro, RGMa stimulation of adult neural stem cells suppressed neurite outgrowth of newborn neurons, which could be prevented by knockdown of the multifunctional receptor neogenin, as well as pharmacological inhibition of the downstream target Rho-associated protein kinase. These findings present a function for RGMa in the adult brain and add to the intricate molecular network that regulates adult brain plasticity.

HSPA12A targets the cytoplasmic domain and affects the trafficking of the Amyloid Precursor Protein receptor SorLA.

SorLA and Sortilin are multifunctional receptors involved in endocytosis and intracellular sorting of different and unrelated ligands. SorLA has recently attracted much attention as a novel strong risk gene for Alzheimer's disease, and much effort is currently being put into understanding the underlying molecular mechanism. Trafficking of SorLA and Sortilin are mediated by interacting with AP-1, AP-2, GGA 1-3 and the retromer complex. Although these cytosolic adaptor proteins all bind to both SorLA and Sortilin, a large fraction of intracellular Sortilin and SorLA are located in different subcellular vesicles. This indicates that unknown specialised adaptor proteins targeting SorLA for trafficking are yet to be discovered. We have identified HSPA12A as a new adaptor protein that, among Vps10p-D receptors, selectively binds to SorLA in an ADP/ATP dependent manner. This is the first described substrate of HSPA12A, and we demonstrate that the binding, which affects both endocytic speed and subcellular localisation of SorLA, is mediated by specific acidic residues in the cytosolic domain of SorLA. The identification of the relatively unknown HSPA12A as a SorLA specific interaction partner could lead to novel insight into the molecular mechanism of SorLA, and re-emphasises the role of heat shock proteins in neurodegenerative diseases.

The loss-of-function disease-mutation G301R in the Na+/K+-ATPase α2 isoform decreases lesion volume and improves functional outcome after acute spinal cord injury in mice.

BACKGROUND: The Na+/K+-ATPases are transmembrane ion pumps important for maintenance of ion gradients across the plasma membrane that serve to support multiple cellular functions, such as membrane potentials, regulation of cellular volume and pH, and co-transport of signaling transmitters in all animal cells. The α2Na+/K+-ATPase subunit isoform is predominantly expressed in astrocytes, which us the sharp Na+-gradient maintained by the sodium pump necessary for astroglial metabolism. Prolonged ischemia induces an elevation of [Na+]i, decreased ATP levels and intracellular pH owing to anaerobic metabolism and lactate accumulation. During ischemia, Na+/K+-ATPase-related functions will naturally increase the energy demand of the Na+/K+-ATPase ion pump. However, the role of the α2Na+/K+-ATPase in contusion injury to the spinal cord remains unknown. We used mice heterozygous mice for the loss-of-function disease-mutation G301R in the Atp1a2 gene (α 2+/G301R ) to study the effect of reduced α2Na+/K+-ATPase expression in a moderate contusion spinal cord injury (SCI) model. RESULTS: We found that α 2+/G301R mice display significantly improved functional recovery and decreased lesion volume compared to littermate controls (α 2+/+ ) 7 days after SCI. The protein level of the α1 isoform was significantly increased, in contrast to the α3 isoform that significantly decreased 3 days after SCI in both α 2+/G301R and α 2+/+ mice. The level of the α2 isoform was significantly decreased in α 2+/G301R mice both under naïve conditions and 3 days after SCI compared to α 2+/+ mice. We found no differences in astroglial aquaporin 4 levels and no changes in the expression of chemokines (CCL2, CCL5 and CXCL1) and cytokines (TNF, IL-6, IL-1ß, IL-10 and IL-5) between genotypes, just as no apparent differences were observed in location and activation of CD45 and F4/80 positive microglia and infiltrating leukocytes. CONCLUSION: Our proof of concept study demonstrates that reduced expression of the α2 isoform in the spinal cord is protective following SCI. Importantly, the BMS and lesion volume were assessed at 7 days after SCI, and longer time points after SCI were not evaluated. However, the α2 isoform is a potential possible target of therapeutic strategies for the treatment of SCI.

Hypothermia-induced dystonia and abnormal cerebellar activity in a mouse model with a single disease-mutation in the sodium-potassium pump.

Mutations in the neuron-specific α3 isoform of the Na+/K+-ATPase are found in patients suffering from Rapid onset Dystonia Parkinsonism and Alternating Hemiplegia of Childhood, two closely related movement disorders. We show that mice harboring a heterozygous hot spot disease mutation, D801Y (α3+/D801Y), suffer abrupt hypothermia-induced dystonia identified by electromyographic recordings. Single-neuron in vivo recordings in awake α3+/D801Y mice revealed irregular firing of Purkinje cells and their synaptic targets, the deep cerebellar nuclei neurons, which was further exacerbated during dystonia and evolved into abnormal high-frequency burst-like firing. Biophysically, we show that the D-to-Y mutation abolished pump-mediated Na+/K+ exchange, but allowed the pumps to bind Na+ and become phosphorylated. These findings implicate aberrant cerebellar activity in α3 isoform-related dystonia and add to the functional understanding of the scarce and severe mutations in the α3 isoform Na+/K+-ATPase.

Cognitive deficits caused by a disease-mutation in the α3 Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase isoform.

The Na(+)/K(+)-ATPases maintain Na(+) and K(+) electrochemical gradients across the plasma membrane, a prerequisite for electrical excitability and secondary transport in neurons. Autosomal dominant mutations in the human ATP1A3 gene encoding the neuron-specific Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase α3 isoform cause different neurological diseases, including rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism (RDP) and alternating hemiplegia of childhood (AHC) with overlapping symptoms, including hemiplegia, dystonia, ataxia, hyperactivity, epileptic seizures, and cognitive deficits. Position D801 in the α3 isoform is a mutational hotspot, with the D801N, D801E and D801V mutations causing AHC and the D801Y mutation causing RDP or mild AHC. Despite intensive research, mechanisms underlying these disorders remain largely unknown. To study the genotype-to-phenotype relationship, a heterozygous knock-in mouse harboring the D801Y mutation (α3(+/D801Y)) was generated. The α3(+/D801Y) mice displayed hyperactivity, increased sensitivity to chemically induced epileptic seizures and cognitive deficits. Interestingly, no change in the excitability of CA1 pyramidal neurons in the α3(+/D801Y) mice was observed. The cognitive deficits were rescued by administration of the benzodiazepine, clonazepam, a GABA positive allosteric modulator. Our findings reveal the functional significance of the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase α3 isoform in the control of spatial learning and memory and suggest a link to GABA transmission.

Tuning of the Na,K-ATPase by the beta subunit.

The vital gradients of Na(+) and K(+) across the plasma membrane of animal cells are maintained by the Na,K-ATPase, an αß enzyme complex, whose α subunit carries out the ion transport and ATP hydrolysis. The specific roles of the ß subunit isoforms are less clear, though ß2 is essential for motor physiology in mammals. Here, we show that compared to ß1 and ß3, ß2 stabilizes the Na(+)-occluded E1P state relative to the outward-open E2P state, and that the effect is mediated by its transmembrane domain. Molecular dynamics simulations further demonstrate that the tilt angle of the ß transmembrane helix correlates with its functional effect, suggesting that the relative orientation of ß modulates ion binding at the α subunit. ß2 is primarily expressed in granule neurons and glomeruli in the cerebellum, and we propose that its unique functional characteristics are important to respond appropriately to the cerebellar Na(+) and K(+) gradients.

HPLC Neurotransmitter Analysis.

High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a powerful tool to measure neurotransmitter levels in specific tissue samples and dialysates from patients and animals. In this chapter, we list the current protocols used to measure neurotransmitters in the form of biogenic amines from murine brain samples.

Behavior Test Relevant to α2/α3Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase Gene Modified Mouse Models.

The behavioral phenotypes of mice are the result of a complex interplay between overall health, sensory abilities, learning and memory, motor function as well as developmental milestones, feeding, sexual, parental, and social behaviors. This chapter lists a selected number of key behavioral tests, specifically designed to assay fundamental behavioral features such as memory, activity, and motor skills in mice models.