High-risk use of prescription opioids among patients treated for alcohol problems in New York State. A repeated cross-sectional study, 2005-2018.

Background: Patients with alcohol use disorder (AUD) and high-risk opioid use are at risk of serious complications. The purpose of this study was to estimate the prevalence of and factors associated with high-risk opioid use in patients with an alcohol use problem from 2005 to 2018. Methods: This repeated cross-sectional study analyzed data from first admissions for alcohol treatment (2005-2018) to the NYS Office of Addiction Services and Supports merged with Medicaid Claims Data. High-risk opioid use was defined as opioid dose ≥50 morphine mg equivalents (MME) per day; opioid prescriptions overlapping ≥7 days; opioids for chronic pain >90 days or opioids for acute pain >7 days. Results: Patients receiving ≥50 MME increased from 690 to 3226 from 2005 to 2010; then decreased to 2330 in 2018. From 2005-2011, patients with opioid prescriptions overlapping ≥7 days increased from 226 to 1594 then decreased to 892 in 2018. From 2005-2010, opioid use >7 days for acute pain increased from 133 to 970 and plateaued after 2010. From 2005-2018, patients who received opioids >90 days for chronic pain trended from 186 to 1655. White patients, females, age 36-55, patients with chronic and acute pain diagnoses had the highest rates of high-risk use. Conclusions: The prevalence of high-risk opioid use in patients with alcohol use problems increased from 2005 to 2011, and generally decreased after 2010. However, prevalence of opioids >90 days for chronic pain trended up from 2005 to 2018. High-risk opioid use among patients with AUD emphasizes the need to develop interventional strategies to improve patient care.

Differences in prescribing patterns of opioid dependence drugs among patients with primary alcohol use problems and opioid use disorders within New York State by social determinant factors, 2005-2018.

BACKGROUND: The increase in alcohol use problems and opioid use disorder (OUD) highlights the need for research on effective medication treatments for patients with dual diagnoses. OBJECTIVES: This study analyzed trends and social disparities in prescribing OUD medications for patients who initially had alcohol use problems and later received their first OUD diagnosis. METHODS: This study utilized merged data from the New York State Office of Addiction Services and Supports and the Medicaid to analyze individuals aged 18 and older who initially had primary alcohol use problems and later had OUD for the first time between 2005 and 2018. It examined the rates of new buprenorphine and naltrexone prescriptions across various demographic and socioeconomic groups. RESULTS: Among 27,029 clients, the average rate of new buprenorphine was 64.23 per 1,000 clients (95% CI [61.30, 67.15]), with upward trends. The 18-35 age group had the highest buprenorphine utilization (111.48 per 1,000 clients), and highest increase rates compared to other age groups. The White non-Hispanic group had the highest rates of buprenorphine (119.23 per 1000 clients) and showed larger increase over time compared to other race/ethnicity groups. Disabled patients showed slower increasing rates of buprenorphine compared to other groups. Upward trends were observed in naltrexone. All observed differences were statistically significant (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Trends showed increased use of OUD medications, with varying rates of buprenorphine utilization across different ages, races, and employment statuses. Despite this, the rates of receiving new buprenorphine remained low, suggesting a need for innovative methods to expand access to treatments.

Association between potentially inappropriate medications prescription and health-related quality of life among US older adults.

BACKGROUND: Potentially inappropriate medications (PIMs) are associated with worse health outcomes among older adults. Our objective was to examine the association between PIM prescription and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) among older adults in the United States using nationally representative data. METHODS: This was a retrospective study utilizing 2011-2015 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS) data. Community dwelling US adults aged 65 years or older were included. A qualified definition operationalized from the 2019 American Geriatrics Society Beers Criteria® was used to define exposure to PIMs during the study period. The Physical Component Summary (PCS) and Mental Component Summary (MCS) of the Medical Outcomes Study 12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12) were used to measure HRQoL. Survey-weighted linear regression models were constructed to investigate the association between PIM exposure and participants' PCS and MCS scores. Analyses were stratified across three age cohorts (65-74, 75-85, and ≥85 years). RESULTS: Unadjusted analysis showed poorer scores in the PIM exposed group for both PCS and MCS (all p < 0.001). PIM exposure was associated with poorer PCS scores across all age groups with those aged 65-74 years (adjusted regression coefficient = -1.60 [95% CI = -2.27, -0.93; p < 0.001]), those 75-84 years (adjusted regression coefficient: -1.49 [95% CI = -2.45, -0.53; p = 0.003]), and those 85 years and older (adjusted regression coefficient = -1.65 [95% CI = -3.03, -0.27; p = 0.02]). PIM exposure was also associated with poorer MCS scores in participants aged 65-74 years (adjusted regression coefficient = -0.69 [95% CI = -1.16, -0.22; p = 0.004]) and 85 years and older (adjusted regression coefficient = -2.01 [95% CI = -3.25, -0.78; p = 0.002]). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that patients' exposure to PIMs is associated with poorer HRQoL. Further work is needed to assess whether interventions to deprescribe PIMs may help to improve patients' HRQoL.

Patient and social factors related to nebulizer use in COPD patients at the transition of care: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Transition from hospital to home is a vulnerable period for patients with COPD exacerbations, with a high risk for readmission and mortality. Twenty percent of patients with an initial hospitalization for a COPD exacerbation are readmitted to a hospital within 30 days, costing the health care system over $15 billion annually. While nebulizer therapy directed at some high-risk COPD patients may improve the transition from hospital to home, patient and social factors are likely to contribute to difficulties with their use. Current literature describing the COPD patient's experience with utilizing nebulizer therapy, particularly during care transitions, is limited. Therefore, the objective of this study was to explore underlying COPD patient and social factors contributing to practical difficulties with nebulizer use at the care transition from hospital to home. METHODS: This was a qualitative study conducted between September 2020 and June 2022. Patients were included if they were ≥ 40 years old, had a current diagnosis of COPD, had an inpatient admission at a hospital, and were discharged directly to home with nebulizer therapy. Semi-structured, one-on-one interviews with patients were conducted covering a broad range of patient and social factors and their relationships with nebulizer use and readmission. Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. A thematic analysis was performed using a mixed inductive and deductive approach. RESULTS: Twenty-one interviews were conducted, and subjects had a mean age of 64 ± 8.4 years, 62% were female, and 76% were White. The predominant interview themes were health care system interactions and medication management. The interviews highlighted that discharge counseling methods and depth of counseling from hospitals were inconsistent and were not always patient-friendly. They also suggested that patients could appropriately identify, set up, and utilize their nebulizer treatment without difficulties, but additional patient education is required for nebulizer clean up and maintenance. CONCLUSIONS: Our interviews suggest that there is room for improvement within the health care system for providing consistent, effective discharge counseling. Also, COPD patients discharged from a hospital on nebulizer therapy can access and understand their treatment but require additional education for nebulizer clean up and maintenance.

Clinical and economic effectiveness of a pharmacy and primary care collaborative transition of care program.

BACKGROUND: Primary care pharmacists are uniquely positioned to improve care quality by intervening within care transitions in the postdischarge period. However, additional evidence is required to demonstrate that pharmacist-led interventions can reduce health care utilization in a cost-effective manner. The study's objective was to evaluate the clinical and economic effectiveness of a pharmacy-led transition of care (TOC) program within a primary care setting. METHODS: This cluster randomized trial was conducted between 2019 and 2021 and included three primary care practices. Eligible patients were ≥18 years of age and at high risk of readmission. The multifaceted pharmacy intervention included medication reconciliation, comprehensive medication review, and patient and provider follow-up. The primary composite endpoint included hospital readmissions and emergency department (ED) visits within 30 days of discharge. Differences in outcomes were modeled using a generalized estimated equations approach and outcomes were assumed to be distributed as a Poisson random variable. A cost-benefit analysis was embedded within the study and estimated economic outcomes from a provider group/health system perspective. Cost measures included: net benefit, benefit to cost ratio (BCR), and return on investment (ROI). RESULTS: Of 300 eligible patients, 36 were in the intervention group and 264 in the control group. The intervention significantly reduced the primary composite outcome of all-cause readmissions and ED visits within 30 days (adjusted incidence rate ratio [aIRR], 0.54; 95% CI, 0.44-0.66; P < 0.001). There were significant reductions in both 30-day all-cause readmissions (aIRR, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.60-0.67; P < 0.001) and ED visits (aIRR, 0.25; 95% CI, 0.20, 0.31; P < 0.001) between groups. The net benefit of the intervention was $9,078, with a BCR of 2.11 and a ROI of 111%. Sensitivity analyses were robust to changes in economic inputs. CONCLUSION: This care transition program had positive clinical and economic benefits, providing further support for the essential role pharmacists demonstrate in providing TOC services.

A cohort of patients in New York State with an alcohol use disorder and subsequent treatment information - A merging of two administrative data sources.

OBJECTIVE: Despite the high prevalence of alcohol use disorder (AUD) in the United States, limited research is focused on the associations among AUD, pain, and opioids/benzodiazepine use. In addition, little is known regarding individuals with a history of AUD and their potential risk for pain diagnoses, pain prescriptions, and subsequent misuse. Moreover, the potential risk of pain diagnoses, prescriptions, and subsequent misuse among individuals with a history of AUD is not well known. The objective was to develop a tailored dataset by linking data from 2 New York State (NYS) administrative databases to investigate a series of hypotheses related to AUD and painful medical disorders. METHODS: Data from the NYS Office of Addiction Services and Supports (OASAS) Client Data System (CDS) and Medicaid claims data from the NYS Department of Health Medicaid Data Warehouse (MDW) were merged using a stepwise deterministic method. Multiple patient-level identifier combinations were applied to create linkage rules. We included patients aged 18 and older from the OASAS CDS who initially entered treatment with a primary substance use of alcohol and no use of opioids between January 1, 2003, and September 23, 2019. This cohort was then linked to corresponding Medicaid claims. RESULTS: A total of 177,685 individuals with a primary AUD problem and no opioid use history were included in the dataset. Of these, 37,346 (21.0%) patients had an OUD diagnosis, and 3,365 (1.9%) patients experienced an opioid overdose. There were 121,865 (68.6%) patients found to have a pain condition. CONCLUSION: The integrated database allows researchers to examine the associations among AUD, pain, and opioids/benzodiazepine use, and propose hypotheses to improve outcomes for at-risk patients. The findings of this study can contribute to the development of a prognostic prediction model and the analysis of longitudinal outcomes to improve the care of patients with AUD.

Integrating community health workers within a pharmacy to address health-related social needs.

BACKGROUND: Community pharmacies in the United States are beginning to serve as patient care service destinations addressing both clinical and health-related social needs (HRSN). Although there is support for integrating social determinant of health (SDoH) activities into community pharmacy practice, the literature remains sparse on optimal pharmacy roles and practice models. OBJECTIVE: To assess the feasibility of a community pharmacy HRSN screening and referral program adapted from a community health worker (CHW) model and evaluate participant perceptions and attitudes toward the program. METHODS: This feasibility study was conducted from January 2022 to April 2022 at an independent pharmacy in Buffalo, NY. Collaborative relationships were developed with 3 community-based organizations including one experienced in implementing CHW programs. An HRSN screening and referral intervention was developed and implemented applying a CHW practice model. Pharmacy staff screened subjects for social needs and referred to an embedded CHW, who assessed and referred subjects to community resources with as-needed follow-up. Post intervention, subjects completed a survey regarding their program experience. Descriptive statistics were used to report demographics, screening form, and survey responses. RESULTS: Eighty-six subjects completed screening and 21 (24.4%) an intervention and referral. Most participants utilized Medicaid (57%) and lived within a ZIP Code associated with the lowest estimated quartile for median household income (66%). Eighty-seven social needs were identified among the intervention subjects, with neighborhood and built environment (31%) and economic stability challenges (30%) being the most common SDoH domains. The CHW spent an average of 33 minutes per patient from initial case review through follow-up. All respondents had a positive perception of the program, and the majority agreed that community pharmacies should help patients with their social needs (70%). CONCLUSIONS: This feasibility study demonstrated that embedding a CHW into a community pharmacy setting can successfully address HRSN and that participants have a positive perception toward these activities.

Trends in Prescribing Opioids, Benzodiazepines, and Both Among Adults with Alcohol Use Disorder in New York State.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a highly prevalent public health problem that contributes to opioid- and benzodiazepine-related morbidity and mortality. Even though co-utilization of these substances is particularly harmful, data are sparse on opioid or benzodiazepine prescribing patterns among individuals with AUD. OBJECTIVE: To estimate temporal trends and disparities in opioid, benzodiazepine, and opioid/benzodiazepine co-prescribing among individuals with AUD in New York State (NYS). DESIGN/PARTICIPANTS: Serial cross-sectional study analyzing merged data from the NYS Office of Addiction Services and Supports (OASAS) and the NYS Department of Health Medicaid Data Warehouse. Subjects with a first admission to an OASAS treatment program from 2005-2018 and a primary AUD were included. A total of 148,328 subjects were identified. MEASURES: Annual prescribing rates of opioids, benzodiazepines, or both between the pre- (2005-2012) and post- (2013-2018) Internet System for Tracking Over-Prescribing (I-STOP) periods. I-STOP is a prescription monitoring program implemented in NYS in August 2013. Analyses were stratified based on sociodemographic factors (age, sex, race/ethnicity, and location). RESULTS: Opioid prescribing rates decreased between the pre- and post-I-STOP periods from 25.1% (95% CI, 24.9-25.3%) to 21.3% (95% CI, 21.2-21.4; P <.001), while benzodiazepine (pre: 9.96% [95% CI, 9.83-10.1%], post: 9.92% [95% CI, 9.83-10.0%]; P =.631) and opioid/benzodiazepine prescribing rates remained unchanged (pre: 3.01% vs. post: 3.05%; P =.403). After I-STOP implementation, there was a significant decreasing trend in opioid (change, -1.85% per year, P <.0001), benzodiazepine (-0.208% per year, P =.0184), and opioid/benzodiazepine prescribing (-0.267% per year, P <.0001). Opioid, benzodiazepine, and co-prescription rates were higher in females, White non-Hispanics, and rural regions. CONCLUSIONS: Among those with AUD, opioid prescribing decreased following NYS I-STOP program implementation. While both benzodiazepine and opioid/benzodiazepine co-prescribing rates remained high, a decreasing trend was evident after program implementation. Continuing high rates of opioid and benzodiazepine prescribing necessitate the development of innovative approaches to improve the quality of care.

Pharmacists and transitions of care from emergency department to home.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the impact of a pharmacist-led telephone outreach program among patients discharged from the emergency department (ED) to home. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a randomized controlled study from February to November 2019 at a tertiary care academic medical center. METHODS: At ED discharge, participants were randomly assigned to usual care (controls) or usual care plus the pharmacist's review (intervention group). Eligible individuals included those being discharged from the ED to home with 8 or more medications. A pharmacist telephoned patients in the intervention group within 48 to 96 hours after ED discharge. The medications in the patient's record from the ED were compared with what the patient was taking at home. Discrepancies were communicated to the primary provider via fax or telephone. The primary outcome was overall health care utilization including unplanned hospital readmissions or ED visits within 30 days of discharge. The effect of the intervention on the number of acute events was analyzed using a Poisson regression model adjusting for relevant baseline characteristics. RESULTS: Of 90 eligible participants, 45 patients each were in the intervention and control groups. A total of 26 patients (58%) in the intervention group were reached, and 56 interventions were provided by the pharmacists. There was no significant difference between groups for overall health care utilization (adjusted risk ratio [aRR], 1.01; 95% CI, 0.50-2.06; P = .96), hospitalizations (aRR, 0.20; 95% CI, 0.02-2.18; P = .19), and ED visits (aRR, 1.24; 95% CI, 0.56-2.79; P = .59). CONCLUSIONS: A pharmacist-led telephone outreach program conducted after ED discharge was not associated with a change in health care utilization.

Neural Net Modeling of Checkpoint Inhibitor Related Myocarditis and Steroid Response.

Background: Serious but rare side effects associated with immunotherapy pose a difficult problem for regulators and practitioners. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have come into widespread use in oncology in recent years and are associated with rare cardiotoxicity, including potentially fatal myocarditis. To date, no comprehensive model of myocarditis progression and outcomes integrating time-series based laboratory and clinical signals has been constructed. In this paper, we describe a time-series neural net (NN) model of ICI-related myocarditis derived using supervised machine learning. Methods: We extracted and modeled data from electronic medical records of ICI-treated patients who had an elevation in their troponin. All data collection was performed using an electronic case report form, with approximately 300 variables collected on as many occasions as available, yielding 6000 data elements per patient over their clinical course. Key variables were scored 0-5 and sequential assessments were used to construct the model. The NN model was developed in MatLab and applied to analyze the time course and outcomes of treatments. Results: We identified 23 patients who had troponin elevations related to their ICI therapy, 15 of whom had ICI-related myocarditis, while the remaining 8 patients on ICIs had other causes for troponin elevation, such as myocardial infarction. Our model showed that troponin was the most predictive biomarker of myocarditis, in line with prior studies. Our model also identified early and aggressive use of steroid treatment as a major determinant of survival for cases of grade 3 or 4 ICI-related myocarditis. Conclusion: Our study shows that a supervised learning NN can be used to model rare events such as ICI-related myocarditis and thus provide clinical insight into drivers of progression and treatment outcomes. These findings direct attention to early detection biomarkers and clinical symptoms as the best means of implementing early and potentially life-saving steroid treatment.

Implementation and evaluation of social determinants of health practice models within community pharmacy.

BACKGROUND: While community pharmacies are an ideal setting for social needs screening and referral programs, information on social risk assessment within pharmacy practice is limited. OBJECTIVES: Our primary objective was to describe 2 social determinant of health (SDOH) practice models implemented within community pharmacies. The secondary objective was to evaluate implementation practices utilizing the Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, and Maintenance (RE-AIM) framework. PRACTICE DESCRIPTION: Two pharmacy groups participated in a 3-month study, one in New York (9 pharmacies) and another in Missouri (1 pharmacy). The New York pharmacies implemented an SDOH specialist practice model, in which pharmacy staff members facilitate the program. The Missouri pharmacy implemented a community health worker (CHW) model by cross training their technicians. Each pharmacy developed their program using the Community Pharmacy Enhanced Services Network Care Model. PRACTICE INNOVATION: Both programs expanded the technician role to take on additional responsibilities. The SDOH specialist model partnered with a local independent practice association to create a social needs referral program using a technology platform for closed-loop communication. All workflow steps of the self-contained CHW program were completed within the pharmacy, placing additional responsibility on the CHW and pharmacy staff. EVALUATION METHODS: RE-AIM framework dimensions of Reach, Effectiveness, and Adoption. RESULTS: Social challenges were identified in 49 of 76 (65%) generated SDOH screenings. The most prevalent social needs reported were affordability of daily needs (33%) and health care system navigation (15%). While most pharmacy staff indicated that workflow steps were clearly defined, assessments and referral tools were identified as potential gaps. While approximately 50% of pharmacy staff were comfortable with their assigned roles and in addressing SDOH challenges, physical and mental health concerns required additional education for intervention. CONCLUSION: The successful implementation of community pharmacy SDOH programs connected patients with local resources. Community pharmacies are ideally positioned to expand their public health footprint through SDOH interactions that consequently improve patient care.

Task difficulty and physiological measures of mental workload in air traffic control: a scoping review.

This study provides a systematic synthesis of empirical research on mental workload (MWL) in air traffic control (ATC). MWL is a key concept in research on innovative technologies, because the assessment of MWL is crucial to the evaluation of such technologies. Our specific focus was on physiological measures of MWL. The used search strategy identified 39 peer-reviewed publications that analysed ATC tasks, examined different levels of difficulty of the ATC task, and considered at least one physiological measure of MWL. Positive relations between measures of MWL and task difficulty were observed most frequently, indicating that the measures indeed allowed the assessment of MWL. The most commonly used physiological measures were brain measures (EEG and fNIR) and heart rate measures. The review revealed a need for more precise descriptions of crucial experimental parameters in order to permit a transition of the field towards more interactive and dynamic types of analysis. Practitioner summary: Research on innovative technology in air traffic control (ATC) depends on assessments of mental workload (MWL). We reviewed empirical research on MWL in ATC. Brain and heart measures often allow assessments of MWL. Better descriptions of experiments are needed to allow comparisons among studies and more dynamic and interactive analyses.

Socio-demographic and -economic factors associated with 30-day readmission for conditions targeted by the hospital readmissions reduction program: a population-based study.

BACKGROUND: Early hospital readmissions remain common in patients with conditions targeted by the CMS Hospital Readmission Reduction Program (HRRP). There is still no consensus on whether readmission measures should be adjusted based on social factors, and there are few population studies within the U.S. examining how social characteristics influence readmissions for HRRP-targeted conditions. The objective of this study was to determine if specific socio-demographic and -economic factors are associated with 30-day readmissions in HRRP-targeted conditions: acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia, acute myocardial infarction, and heart failure. METHODS: The Nationwide Readmissions Database was used to identify patients admitted with HRRP-targeted conditions between January 1, 2010 and September 30, 2015. Stroke was included as a control condition because it is not included in the HRRP. Multivariate models were used to assess the relationship between three social and economic characteristics (gender, urban/rural hospital designation, and estimated median household income within the patient's zip code) and 30-day readmission rates using a hierarchical two-level logistic model. Age-adjusted models were used to assess relationship differences between Medicare vs. non-Medicare populations. RESULTS: There were 19,253,997 weighted index hospital admissions for all diagnoses and 3,613,488 30-day readmissions between 2010 and 2015. Patients in the lowest income quartile (≤$37,999) had an increased odds of 30-day readmission across all conditions (P < 0.0001). Female gender and rural hospital designation were associated with a decreased odds of 30-day readmission for most targeted conditions (P < 0.05). Similar findings were also seen in patients ≥65 years old. CONCLUSIONS: Socio-demographic and -economic factors are associated with 30-day readmission rates and should be incorporated into tools or interventions to improve discharge planning and mitigate against readmission.

Clinical characteristics, time course, treatment and outcomes of patients with immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated myocarditis.

BACKGROUND: Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have emerged as a front-line therapy for a variety of solid tumors. With the widespread use of these agents, immune-associated toxicities are increasingly being recognized, including fatal myocarditis. There are limited data on the outcomes and prognostic utility of biomarkers associated with ICI-associated myocarditis. Our objective was to examine the associations between clinical biomarkers of cardiomyocyte damage and mortality in patients with cancer treated with ICIs. METHODS: We retrospectively studied 23 patients who developed symptomatic and asymptomatic troponin elevations while receiving ICI therapy at a National Cancer Institute-designated comprehensive cancer center. We obtained serial ECGs, troponin I, and creatine kinase-MD (CK-MB), in addition to other conventional clinical biomarkers, and compared covariates between survivors and non-survivors. RESULTS: Among patients with myocarditis, higher troponin I (p=0.037) and CK-MB (p=0.034) levels on presentation correlated with progression to severe myocarditis. Higher troponin I (p=0.016), CK (p=0.013), and CK-MB (p=0.034) levels were associated with increased mortality, while the presence of advanced atrioventricular block on presentation (p=0.088) trended toward increased mortality. Weekly troponin monitoring lead to earlier hospitalization for potential myocarditis (p=0.022) and was associated with decreased time to steroid initiation (p=0.053) and improved outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Routine troponin surveillance may be helpful in predicting mortality in ICI-treated patients with cancer in the early phase of ICI therapy initiation. Early detection of troponin elevation is associated with earlier intervention and improved outcomes in ICI-associated myocarditis. The recommended assessment and diagnostic studies guiding treatment decisions are presented.

Addressing social determinants of health in community pharmacy: Innovative opportunities and practice models.

Social determinants of health (SDoH) account for up to 90% of health outcomes, whereas medical care accounts for only 10%-15%; despite this disparity, only 24% of hospitals and 16% of physician practices screen for the 5 social needs. Community-embedded and highly accessible, pharmacies are uniquely positioned to connect individuals to local community and social resources and thereby address SDoH. In this article, we explore novel community pharmacy practice models that address SDoH, provide real-world examples of these models, and discuss pathways for reimbursement and sustainability. A number of innovative community pharmacy practice models that focus on social issues are currently being explored. These include integrating community health workers (CHWs) or SDoH specialists, wherein CHWs are frontline public health workers who can effectively bridge the health care system and their community, whereas SDoH specialists are pharmacy team members trained with substantial SDoH knowledge and how to use it to connect pharmacy patients to community resources. Three community pharmacy networks have implemented pilot programs using either a CHW or SDoH specialist model. An essential component for program success in all cases has been partnership development and increased interdependence between the pharmacies, local community organizations, and the public health sector. New payment models and financial incentives will be necessary to expand and sustain these programs. A potential Approach may be the use of Z codes, a subset of ICD-10-CM codes specific to assessing SDoH. Although opportunities are developing for community pharmacies to play a major role in sustainably addressing SDoH, additional work is needed before there is a widespread acceptance of pharmacies becoming service referral destinations for patients with social needs. Evaluation of these models on a wider scale will be necessary to fully evaluate their effectiveness, costs, and implementation within different community pharmacy settings.

Readmissions and costs among younger and older adults for targeted conditions during the enactment of the hospital readmission reduction program.

BACKGROUND: The Hospital Readmissions Reduction Program (HRRP) was introduced to reduce readmission rates among Medicare beneficiaries, however little is known about readmissions and costs for HRRP-targeted conditions in younger populations. The primary objective of this study was to examine readmission trends and costs for targeted conditions during policy implementation among younger and older adults in the U.S. METHODS: We analyzed the Nationwide Readmission Database from January 2010 to September 2015 in younger (18-64 years) and older (≥65 years) patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI), heart failure (HF), pneumonia, and acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (AECOPD). Pre- and post-HRRP periods were defined based on implementation of the policy for each condition. Readmission rates were evaluated using an interrupted time series with difference-in-difference analyses and hospital cost differences between early and late readmissions (≤30 vs. > 30 days) were evaluated using generalized linear models. RESULTS: Overall, this study included 16,884,612 hospitalizations with 3,337,266 readmissions among all age groups and 5,977,177 hospitalizations with 1,104,940 readmissions in those aged 18-64 years. Readmission rates decreased in all conditions. In the HRRP announcement period, readmissions declined significantly for those aged 40-64 years for AMI (p < 0.0001) and HF (p = 0.003). Readmissions decreased significantly in the post-HRRP period for those aged 40-64 years at a slower rate for AMI (p = 0.003) and HF (p = 0.05). Readmission rates among younger patients (18-64 years) varied within all four targeted conditions in HRRP announcement and post-HRRP periods. Adjusted models showed a significantly higher readmission cost in those readmitted within 30 days among younger and older populations for AMI (p < 0.0001), HF (p < 0.0001), pneumonia (p < 0.0001), and AECOPD (p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: Readmissions for targeted conditions decreased in the U.S. during the enactment of the HRRP policy and younger age groups (< 65 years) not targeted by the policy saw a mixed effect. Healthcare expenditures in younger and older populations were significantly higher for early readmissions with all targeted conditions. Further research is necessary evaluating total healthcare utilization including emergency department visits, observation units, and hospital readmissions in order to better understand the extent of the HRRP on U.S. healthcare.

Trends in fall-related mortality and fall risk increasing drugs among older individuals in the United States,1999-2017.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have demonstrated increasing mortality due to falls among older adults. The objective of this study was to determine whether there was an increase in fall risk increasing drug prescribing and if this is concurrent with an increase in fall-related mortality in persons 65 years and older in the United States. METHODS: The study is a serial cross-sectional analysis utilizing data from both the National Vital Statistics System (NVSS) and the medical expenditure panel survey (MEPS) for years 1999-2017. Adults aged 65 years and older were evaluated for death due to falls from the NVSS and for prescription fills of fall risk increasing drugs per the Stopping Elderly Accidents, Deaths, and Injuries-Rx (STEADI-Rx) fall checklist from the MEPS. RESULTS: The analysis included 374 972 fall-related mortalities and 7 858 177 122 fills of fall risk increasing drugs. 563 037 964 persons age 65 and older received at least one fall risk increasing drug. Age-adjusted mortality due to falls increased from 29.40 per 100 000 in 1999 to 63.27 per 100 000 in 2017. The percent of persons who received at least one prescription for a fall risk increasing drug increased from 57% in 1999 to 94% in 2017 (p for trend <.0001). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Both use of fall risk increasing drugs and mortality due to falls are on the rise. Fall risk increasing drugs may partially explain the increase in mortality due to falls; this cannot be firmly concluded from the current study. Future research examining the potential relationship between fall risk increasing drugs and fall-related mortality utilizing nationally representative person-level data are needed.

Vitamin D Assessment Over 48 Weeks in Treatment-Naive HIV Individuals Starting Lopinavir/Ritonavir Monotherapy.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin D deficiency is common in HIV population and has been associated with increased comorbidity risk and poor immunologic status. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of protease inhibitor lopinavir/ritonavir monotherapy on changes in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] over 48 weeks. METHODS: Thirty-four treatment-naïve HIV individuals initiating lopinavir/ritonavir monotherapy and receiving clinical care from private practice in Houston, Texas, were included. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels from stored plasma samples collected from IMANI-2 pilot study at both baseline and 48 weeks were analyzed using LC-MS assays. Mean 25(OH)D at baseline and 48 weeks were compared using paired t-tests. Linear regression analysis was used to evaluate factors associated with changes in 25(OH)D. Logistic regression analyses were used to determine the effect of vitamin D status and covariates on CD4 cell count recovery. RESULTS: Mean 25(OH)D was significantly higher at 48 weeks (26.3 ng/mL (SD + 14.9); p=0.0003) compared to baseline (19.8 ng/mL (SD +12.1), with fewer individuals having vitamin D deficiency (41.2%) and severe deficiency (11.8%). Both body mass index and baseline CD4 cell count were significant independent covariates associated with 25(OH)D changes over 48 weeks. Baseline vitamin D status did not affect CD4 cell count recovery. However, in a 24-week multivariate analysis, current tobacco use was significantly associated with a decreased odds of CD4 cell count recovery (AOR 0.106, 95% CI 0.018-0.606; p=0.012). CONCLUSION: Individuals treated with lopinavir/ritonavir monotherapy had significantly higher 25(OH)D after 48 weeks. Current tobacco users had significantly diminished CD4 cell count recovery after starting treatment, warranting further clinical investigation.

Impact of Community Pharmacist Interventions With Managed Care to Improve Medication Adherence.

BACKGROUND: Nonadherence to medications is a concern due to adverse outcomes and higher costs of care. The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services has made adherence a key measurement for Star ratings. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of a collaborative pilot program between a third-party payer, local pharmacy organization, and academic institution focusing on improving medication adherence with community pharmacies. METHODS: Twenty-five community pharmacies implemented adherence-based interventions in patients ≥65 years old, who were Medicare Advantage Plan members, taking targeted medications (statins, oral diabetic medications, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors [ACE-Is] and angiotensin receptor blockers [ARBs]). Outcome measures were (1) pharmacy intervention completion rate, (2) type of adherence interventions, (3) change in the proportion of days covered (PDC) following pharmacist intervention based on adherence group, and (4) nonadherence barriers. RESULTS: A total of 1263 interventions met the eligibility criteria, and common interventions included explaining the benefit of the medication (n = 453, 35.9%) and provider follow-up (n = 109, 8.6%). Among nonadherent subjects who became adherent, the mean PDC increased by 14% (74%-88%, P < .0001), with a 12% decrease in mean PDC score in the nonadherent who remained nonadherent group (71%-58%, P < .0001). Common patient barriers for nonadherence were forgetfulness (n = 451, 35.7%) and denial (n = 84, 6.7%). System and therapeutic barriers included complexity (n = 155, 12.3%) and adverse side effects (n = 42, 3.3%). CONCLUSION: This collaborative effort successfully implemented a community pharmacist-led adherence intervention in 25 independent pharmacies. Our findings highlight increased interactions with patients and in some cases improved adherence measures. Future research must include implementation outcomes in order to effectively implement these interventions in the community pharmacy setting.