Pleural Effusion in Adults-Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment.

BACKGROUND: Pleural effusion is common in routine medical practice and can be due to many different underlying diseases. Precise differential diagnostic categorization is essential, as the treatment and prognosis of pleural effusion largely depend on its cause. METHODS: This review is based on pertinent publications retrieved by a selective search in PubMed and on the authors' personal experience. RESULTS: The most common causes of pleural effusion are congestive heart failure, cancer, pneumonia, and pulmonary embolism. Pleural fluid puncture (pleural tap) enables the differentiation of a transudate from an exudate, which remains, at present, the foundation of the further diagnostic work-up. When a pleural effusion arises in the setting of pneumonia, the potential devel- opment of an empyema must not be overlooked. Lung cancer is the most common cause of malignant pleural effusion, followed by breast cancer. Alongside the treatment of the underlying disease, the specific treatment of pleural effusion ranges from pleurodesis, to thoracoscopy and video-assisted thoracoscopy (with early consultation of a thoracic surgeon), to the placement of a permanently indwelling pleural catheter. CONCLUSION: The proper treatment of pleural effusion can be determined only after meticulous differential diagnosis. The range of therapeutic options has recently become much wider. More data can be expected in the near future concerning diagnostic test- ing for the etiology of the effusion, better pleurodetic agents, the development of interventional techniques, and the genetic background of the affected patients.

[Digital Health in Respiratory Medicine - Current Status]. / Stand der digitalen Medizin in der Pneumologie.

Everyday life is increasingly influenced by digitization. Digitization creates large, often unstructured amounts of data ("big data"), which have been used in consumer industry for years, but yet not widely in medicine. For pulmonology, digitization offers opportunities and risks in different areas like obstructive lung diseases, thoracic oncology, pulmonary rehabilitation, sleep medicine, home mechanical ventilation, and in intensive care medicine. One of the opportunities is that the use of new technologies such as telemedicine and medical apps and the analysis of this new support make it possible to better understand and manage diseases. One of the key advantages is the use of "big data" for displaying dynamic behavior ("trajectories" = movement paths), to better understand disease processes, and to optimize patient management by using analytic techniques such as machine learning. Risks to be considered are data privacy and security as well as the use of artificial intelligence. The vision is to enable precision medicine in pulmonology.

COPD: Rethinking Patient Management - How to Approach a Challenging Patient Group Successfully.

In comparison to other chronically ill people, patients suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) have many additional difficulties to face and conquer. Due to the contribution of avoidable causes of their illness ("smokers' lung"), society holds people with COPD responsible for their disease, which in return often leads to stigmatization and social isolation. In addition, COPD patients commonly belong to a less privileged social class, own a low socioeconomic status, and lower education. Their physical symptoms are easily observable and - by employing moderate adherence - treatable. Nonetheless, the influence of COPD on a patient's psyche often plays an overly prominent role during therapy. "There is only half a patient laying on the examination table," a revelation that sums up the current state of COPD research and the result of the expert meeting "Luftschlösser" ("castles in the clouds"), which took place in spring 2018. Within the limits of the meeting, participants identified practically applicable approaches aiming to enhance the patient management of this challenging patient group. These considerations are supposed to support healthcare professionals in their daily work and aim to improve the therapy as well as the outcome for COPD patients.

Management of Spontaneous Pneumothorax and Post-Interventional Pneumothorax: German S3 Guideline.

In Germany, 10,000 cases of spontaneous pneumothorax are treated inpatient every year. The German Society for Thoracic Surgery, in co-operation with the German Society for Pulmonology, the German Radiological Society, and the German Society of Internal Medicine has developed an S3 guideline on spontaneous pneumothorax and post-interventional pneumothorax moderated by the German Association of Scientific Medical Societies. METHOD: Based on the source guideline of the British Thoracic Society (2010) for spontaneous pneumothorax, a literature search on spontaneous pneumothorax was carried out from 2008 onwards, for post-interventional pneumothorax from 1960 onwards. Evidence levels according to the Oxford Center for Evidence-Based Medicine (2011) were assigned to the relevant studies found. Recommendations according to grade (A: "we recommend"/"we do not recommend," B: "we suggest"/"we do not suggest") were determined in 3 consensus conferences by the nominal group process. RESULTS: The algorithms for primary and secondary pneumothorax differ in the indication for CT scan as well as in the indication for chest drainage application and video-assisted thoracic surgery. Indication for surgery is recommended individually taking into account the risk of recurrence, life circumstances, patient preferences, and procedure risks. For some forms of secondary pneumothorax, a reserved indication for surgery is recommended. Therapy of post-interventional spontaneous pneumothorax is similar to that of primary spontaneous pneumothorax. DISCUSSION: The recommendations of the S3 Guideline provide assistance in managing spontaneous pneumothorax and post-interventional pneumothorax. Whether this will affect existing deviant diagnostic and therapeutic measures will be demonstrated by future epidemiological studies.

Management of Spontaneous Pneumothorax and Postinterventional Pneumothorax: German S3-Guideline. / S3-Leitlinie: Diagnostik und Therapie von Spontanpneumothorax und postinterventionellem Pneumothorax.

In Germany, 10,000 cases of spontaneous pneumothorax are treated inpatient every year. The German Society for Thoracic Surgery (DGT), in co-operation with the German Society for Pulmonology (DGP), the German Radiological Society (DRG) and the German Society of Internal Medicine (DGIM) has developed an S3 guideline on spontaneous pneumothorax and postinterventional pneumothorax moderated by the German Association of Scientific Medical Societies (AWMF). METHOD: Based on the source guideline of the British Thoracic Society (BTS2010) for spontaneous pneumothorax, a literature search on spontaneous pneumothorax was carried out from 2008 onwards, for post-interventional pneumothorax from 1960 onwards. Evidence levels according to the Oxford Center for Evidence-Based Medicine (2011) were assigned to the relevant studies found. Recommendations according to GRADE (A: "we recommend"/"we do not recommend", B: "we suggest"/"we do not suggest") were determined in three consensus conferences by the nominal group process. RESULTS: The algorithms for primary and secondary pneumothorax differ in the indication for CT scan as well as in the indication for chest drainage application and video-assisted thoracic surgery (VATS). Indication for surgery is recommended individually taking into account the risk of recurrence, life circumstances, patient preferences and procedure risks. For some forms of secondary pneumothorax, a reserved indication for surgery is recommended. Therapy of postinterventional spontaneous pneumothorax is similar to that of primary spontaneous pneumothorax. DISCUSSION: The recommendations of the S3 Guideline provide assistance in managing spontaneous pneumothorax and post-interventional pneumothorax. Whether this will affect existing deviant diagnostic and therapeutic measures will be demonstrated by future epidemiological studies.

[How to develop Choosing Wisely recommendations for internal medicine]. / Praktisches Vorgehen bei der Entwicklung von "Klug-entscheiden"-Empfehlungen.

"Choosing Wisely" is an initiative of the German Society of Internal Medicine with the aim to provide recommendations for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures that are of clear medical and scientifically proven benefit, but are rather underused in daily practice. As such, these positive recommendations are indicative of an undersupply. On the other hand, the German Society of Internal Medicine also developed "negative recommendations", pointing out diagnostic and therapeutic procedures that are frequently used but for which there is little or no scientific evidence. They indicate oversupply. So far, the various internal medicine societies have each developed five positive and five negative recommendations, and there are more to come.

Anxiety, Depression, and Health-Related QOL in Patients Diagnosed with PAH or CTEPH.

BACKGROUND: Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) and chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH) are life-threatening diseases with a high burden of symptoms. Although depression, anxiety, and reduced health related quality of life (HRQOL) have also been reported, a comparative analysis which explores these traits and their underlying factors was lacking. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of depression, anxiety, and health related QOL was conducted using a Hospital anxiety and depression scale (HADS) as well as the SF-36 HRQOL questionnaire. Results from these tools were compared with haemodynamic and functional parameters in 70 PAH and 23 CTEPH outpatients from a German tertiary care center specializing in pulmonary hypertension. RESULTS: Although HRQOL was reduced in both cohorts of patients, individuals diagnosed with CTEPH scored lower in nearly all SF-36 parameters. Significance was noted in both "mental health" (p = 0.01) and "mental component summary score" (MCS) (p = 0.02). Depression was also more frequent in patients with CTEPH (56%) than in patients with PAH (30%), (p = 0.03). Overall, depression and anxiety correlated with most SF-36 scales in both PAH and CTEPH. In CTEPH, depression also correlated with the Borg Dyspnea Scale (r = 0.44, p = 0.01). These patients also had significantly lower pCO2 levels than the PAH cohort reflecting more severe ventilation/perfusion mismatch. All other haemodynamic and functional parameters did not differ across the groups. CONCLUSION: While both cohorts of patients suffer from a reduced HRQOL as well as depression and anxiety, decreases in mental health parameters are more pronounced in the CTEPH cohort. This suggests a strong effort to improve early detection, especially in dyspneic patients with classical risk factors for CTEPH and PAH and argues for mental illness interventions alongside routine clinical care provided to patients diagnosed with PAH or CTEPH.

Functional Characterization of Patients with Chronic Thromboembolic Disease.

BACKGROUND: Patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary disease (CTED) have persistent pulmonary vascular obstruction and exercise intolerance without pulmonary hypertension at rest and may benefit from pulmonary endarterectomy. However, up to now, CTED has been poorly characterized. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to analyze the exercise capacity and limiting factors in CTED. METHODS: We compared right heart catheterization and cardiopulmonary exercise test results of patients with CTED [mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP) at rest <25 mm Hg, n = 10], chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH, n = 31) and a control group (n = 41) presenting with dyspnea but normal pulmonary vascular imaging and excluded pulmonary hypertension. RESULTS: Subjects with CTED show a reduced oxygen uptake [median 76/interquartile range (IQR) 22% pred.] and work rate (median 76/IQR 21 W). The work rate was significantly lower compared to control subjects (p = 0.04) but not significantly different from CTEPH patients (p = 0.66). Oxygen pulse and breathing reserve were normal. CTED subjects showed decreased end-tidal CO2 at anaerobic threshold (28.4/4.3 mm Hg), an elevated VE/VCO2 slope (42.5/23.5), breathing equivalents (EQO2 32.0/8.7, EQCO2 39.5/8.8), alveolar-capillary oxygen gradient (34.7/15.5 mm Hg) and capillary end-tidal carbon dioxide gradient (8.8/5.7 mm Hg) compared to control subjects (p < 0.001). The degree of limitation was similar to that in CTEPH. CONCLUSIONS: Despite an mPAP of <25 mm Hg, subjects with CTED show objective functional impairment and similar limitations to patients with CTEPH. Functional limitation is characterized by gas exchange disturbance and ineffective ventilation.

Pulmonary and cardiac function in asymptomatic obese subjects and changes following a structured weight reduction program: a prospective observational study.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of obesity is rising. Obesity can lead to cardiovascular and ventilatory complications through multiple mechanisms. Cardiac and pulmonary function in asymptomatic subjects and the effect of structured dietary programs on cardiac and pulmonary function is unclear. OBJECTIVE: To determine lung and cardiac function in asymptomatic obese adults and to evaluate whether weight loss positively affects functional parameters. METHODS: We prospectively evaluated bodyplethysmographic and echocardiographic data in asymptomatic subjects undergoing a structured one-year weight reduction program. RESULTS: 74 subjects (32 male, 42 female; mean age 42±12 years) with an average BMI 42.5±7.9, body weight 123.7±24.9 kg were enrolled. Body weight correlated negatively with vital capacity (R = -0.42, p<0.001), FEV1 (R = -0.497, p<0.001) and positively with P 0.1 (R = 0.32, p = 0.02) and myocardial mass (R = 0.419, p = 0.002). After 4 months the study subjects had significantly reduced their body weight (-26.0±11.8 kg) and BMI (-8.9±3.8) associated with a significant improvement of lung function (absolute changes: vital capacity +5.5±7.5% pred., p<0.001; FEV1+9.8±8.3% pred., p<0.001, ITGV+16.4±16.0% pred., p<0.001, SR tot -17.4±41.5% pred., p<0.01). Moreover, P0.1/Pimax decreased to 47.7% (p<0.01) indicating a decreased respiratory load. The change of FEV1 correlated significantly with the change of body weight (R = -0.31, p = 0.03). Echocardiography demonstrated reduced myocardial wall thickness (-0.08±0.2 cm, p = 0.02) and improved left ventricular myocardial performance index (-0.16±0.35, p = 0.02). Mitral annular plane systolic excursion (+0.14, p = 0.03) and pulmonary outflow acceleration time (AT +26.65±41.3 ms, p = 0.001) increased. CONCLUSION: Even in asymptomatic individuals obesity is associated with abnormalities in pulmonary and cardiac function and increased myocardial mass. All the abnormalities can be reversed by a weight reduction program.

A symptom-related monitoring program following pulmonary embolism for the early detection of CTEPH: a prospective observational registry study.

BACKGROUND: Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH) is a long-term complication following an acute pulmonary embolism (PE). It is frequently diagnosed at advanced stages which is concerning as delayed treatment has important implications for favourable clinical outcome. Performing a follow-up examination of patients diagnosed with acute PE regardless of persisting symptoms and using all available technical procedures would be both cost-intensive and possibly ineffective. Focusing diagnostic procedures therefore on only symptomatic patients may be a practical approach for detecting relevant CTEPH.This study aimed to evaluate if a follow-up program for patients with acute PE based on telephone monitoring of symptoms and further examination of only symptomatic patients could detect CTEPH. In addition, we investigated the role of cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) as a diagnostic tool. METHODS: In a prospective cohort study all consecutive patients with newly diagnosed PE (n=170, 76 males, 94 females within 26 months) were recruited according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Patients were contacted via telephone and asked to answer standardized questions relating to symptoms. At the time of the final analysis 130 patients had been contacted. Symptomatic patients underwent a structured evaluation with echocardiography, CPET and complete work-up for CTEPH. RESULTS: 37.7%, 25.5% and 29.3% of the patients reported symptoms after three, six, and twelve months respectively. Subsequent clinical evaluation of these symptomatic patients saw 20.4%, 11.5% and 18.8% of patients at the respective three, six and twelve months time points having an echocardiography suggesting pulmonary hypertension (PH). CTEPH with pathological imaging and a mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP) ≥ 25 mm Hg at rest was confirmed in eight subjects. Three subjects with mismatch perfusion defects showed an exercise induced increase of PAP without increasing pulmonary artery occlusion pressure (PAOP). Two subjects with pulmonary hypertension at rest and one with an exercise induced increase of mPAP with normal PAOP showed perfusion defects without echocardiographic signs of PH but a suspicious CPET. CONCLUSION: A follow-up program based on telephone monitoring of symptoms and further structured evaluation of symptomatic subjects can detect patients with CTEPH. CPET may serve as a complementary diagnostic tool.

Cardiopulmonary exercise testing to detect chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension in patients with normal echocardiography.

BACKGROUND: Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH) is a serious complication of pulmonary embolism (PE). Taking into account the reported incidence of CTEPH after acute PE, the number of patients with undiagnosed CTEPH may be high. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to determine if cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) could serve as complementary tool in the diagnosis of CTEPH and can detect CTEPH in patients with normal echocardiography. METHODS: At diagnosis, we analyzed the data of CPET parameters in 42 patients with proven CTEPH and 51 controls, and evaluated the performance of two scores. RESULTS: VE/VCO2 slope, EQO2, EQCO2, P(A-a)O2, end-tidal partial pressure of CO2 at anaerobic threshold (PETCO2) and capillary to end-tidal carbon dioxide gradient [P(c-ET)CO2] were significantly different between patients with CTEPH and controls (p < 0.001). P(c-ET)CO2 was the single parameter with the highest sensitivity (85.7%) and specificity (88.2%). A score combining VE/VCO2 slope, P(A-a)O2, P(c-ET)CO2, PETCO2 [4-parameter-CPET (4-P-CPET) score] reached a sensitivity of 83.3% and a specificity of 92.2% after cross-validation. In 42 patients with CTEPH, echocardiography identified PH in 29 patients (69%), but it was normal in 13 patients (31%). All patients with normal or unmeasurable right ventricular systolic pressure had a pathological CPET. Twelve of the 13 patients (92%) were detected by both CPET scores. CONCLUSION: CPET is a useful noninvasive diagnostic tool for the detection of CTEPH in patients with suspected PH but normal echocardiography. The 4-P-CPET score provides a high sensitivity with the highest specificity.

Functional impact of pulmonary hypertension due to hypoventilation and changes under noninvasive ventilation.

We aimed to characterise the association of pulmonary hypertension due to hypoventilation and exercise capacity, and the haemodynamic and functional changes under noninvasive ventilation. A retrospective analysis was carried out to assess haemodynamics and functional capacity in 18 patients with daytime pulmonary hypertension, due to hypoventilation, at baseline and after 3 months of noninvasive ventilation. Patients presented with a mean±SD pulmonary artery pressure of 49±13 mmHg, preserved cardiac index (3.2±0.66 L·min(-1)·m(-2)), 6-min walking distance of 303±134 m and severely elevated N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) levels. Mean pulmonary artery pressure correlated negatively with maximum work rate (R= -0.72; p=0.03) and 6-min walking distance (R= -0.62; p=0.01). Following noninvasive ventilation we found a significant reduction of mean pulmonary artery pressure (-18 mmHg; p<0.001) and NT-proBNP levels (-2110 pg·mL(-1); p=0.001), and improvement in the 6-min walking distance (+66 m; p=0.008) and maximum work rate (+18 W; p=0.028). Changes in work rate correlated inversely with pulmonary artery pressure (R= -0.75; p=0.031). In this specific cohort with hypoventilation and severe pulmonary hypertension, pulmonary hypertension was associated with reduced exercise capacity. Following noninvasive ventilation, haemodynamics and exercise capacity improved significantly.

Airway obstruction in systolic heart failure--COPD or congestion?

BACKGROUND: The diagnosis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in patients with systolic heart failure (SHF) is challenging because symptoms of both conditions overlap. We aimed to estimate the prevalence, correlates and prognostic impact of true COPD in patients with SHF. METHODS: To diagnose COPD under stable conditions according to the guidelines, pulmonary function testing (PFT) was performed in 619 patients six months after hospitalization for congestive SHF. In 272 patients, PFT had been also performed prior to discharge. RESULTS: In the total cohort, COPD was reported in 23% (144/619). PFT under stable conditions revealed that COPD was absent in 73% (449/619), unconfirmed in 18% (112/619), and proven in 9% (58/619). In 272 patients with serial PFT, initial airway obstruction was found in 19% (51/272) but had resolved in 47% of those (24/51) after six months. Initial hyperinflation detected by bodyplethysmography strongly predicted proven COPD six months later: odds ratio for elevated intrathoracic gas volume 12.8, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.5-65.9; p=0.002. After a median follow-up of 34 months, 27% of the total cohort (165/619) had died. Only proven COPD was associated with an increased mortality risk after adjustment for age, sex, NYHA functional class, ejection fraction, atrial fibrillation, smoking, renal dysfunction and diabetes: hazard ratio 1.64, 95%CI 1.03-2.63; p=0.039. CONCLUSIONS: Airway obstruction is a dynamic phenomenon in SHF. Therefore, a valid diagnosis of COPD in SHF demands serial PFT under stable conditions with special attention to hyperinflation. COPD proven by PFT is associated with an increased all-cause mortality risk.

Pulmonary hypertension in COPD.

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a common consequence of COPD. It has been speculated that patients showing serious PH and vascular remodeling without severe airway obstruction might benefit from vasoactive treatment. There is no approved drug available for COPD-induced PH. Most trials assessing the efficacy of vasoactive drugs in PH have had a follow-up of 12-16 weeks. We report on 4 subjects with COPD and PH. Pulmonary arterial hypertension associated diseases and pulmonary embolism were ruled out. PH persisted despite optimized treatment of underlying COPD and comorbidities, so bosentan was started in all 4 subjects. With bosentan the mean pulmonary artery pressure improved. The average gains in 6-min walk distance at 2-3 months and 8-9 months were 36 m and 145 m, respectively. The maximum gains in 6-min walk distance of the individual subjects were at the 9th, 13th, and 18th month. Oxygenation was stable, and no side effects were observed. We suggest from this experience that in clinical trials of PH in COPD, a follow-up of 16 weeks might cause underestimation of the treatment effects.

The impact of heart failure on the classification of COPD severity.

BACKGROUND: Pulmonary restriction-a reduction of lung volumes-is common in heart failure (HF), rendering severity grading of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) potentially problematic in subjects with both diseases. We compared pulmonary function in patients with either HF or COPD, or the combination to assess whether grading of COPD using the Global Initiative of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease classification is hampered in the presence of HF. METHODS AND RESULTS: In 2 cohorts involving 591 patients with established HF and 405 with a primary care diagnosis of COPD, the presence of HF and COPD was assessed according to guidelines. HF severity was staged according to the NYHA classification system into Classes I-IV. COPD was diagnosed if the ratio of post-bronchodilator forced expiratory volume in 1 second and forced vital capacity (FEV1/FVC) was <0.70, and categorized in GOLD stages I-IV according to post-bronchodilator-predicted FEV1 levels (FEV1% ≥80%; 50-79%; 30-49%; <30%). In total, 557 patients with HF only, 108 with HF+COPD, and 194 with COPD only were studied. Patients, who had neither HF nor COPD according to definition, or HF with reversible obstruction in post-bronchodilator pulmonary function tests were excluded from this analysis (n = 137). Compared with COPD only, patients with HF plus COPD had higher levels of post-bronchodilator FEV1/FVC (median [quartiles] 0.57 [0.47-0.64] vs 0.62 [0.55-0.66] and lower total lung capacity % (115 [104-126]% vs 105 [95-117]%, P < .001) P < .001), but comparable levels of post-bronchodilator FEV1% (70 [56-84]% vs 68 [54-80]%, P = .22) and thus similar distributions of GOLD stages I-IV in both groups (24/56/19/4% vs 31/50/19/1%, P = .57). In patients with HF only, 25% exhibited pre-bronchodilator FEV1% levels of <80% (FEV1% 94 [80-108]%), despite a pre-bronchodilator FEV/FVC ratio ≥0.7 in this group. The reduction of FEV1 in patients with HF only was associated with HF severity. CONCLUSIONS: In stable HF, FEV1 may be significantly reduced even in the absence of "real" airflow obstruction. In this situation, diagnosing COPD according to GOLD criteria (based on FEV1/FVC) still seems feasible, because both FEV1 and FVC are usually decreased to an equal extent in HF. However, classifying COPD based on FEV1 levels may overrate obstruction severity in patients with combined disease (HF plus COPD), and thus may lead to unjustified use of bronchodilators.

Pulmonary hypertension in pulmonary langerhans cell granulomatosis.

Introduction. Pulmonary Langerhans cell granulomatosis is a rare disease with a variable course. In pulmonary Langerhans cell granulomatosis pulmonary hypertension is frequent and has an independent prognostic impact. A vasculopathy which ist not related to ventilatory disturbance and fibrosis has been identified. An arteriopathy and even a venulopathy have been described. Due to this possible venulopathy vasodilators carry a significant risk for pulmonary congestion and edema. No drugs have been approved until now. Case Presentation. One female with PLCG developed severe PH four years after primary diagnosis of pulmonary Langerhans cell granulomatosis. Retrospective analysis of lung biopsies revealed an arterial vasculopathy at the time of primary diagnosis without clinical signs of PH at this time. Sildenafil led to a sustained improvement of hemodynamic features and exercise capacity. Conclusion. This paper underlines that patients with PLCG with an arterial vasculopathy-related PH might improve under sildenafil. Further trials addressing treatment of PH and vasculopathy are needed.

Molecular detection of Campylobacter jejuni as a cause of culture-negative spondylodiscitis.

Spondylodiscitis caused by Campylobacter species is a rare disease which is most often caused by Campylobacter fetus. We report a case of culture-negative spondylodiscitis and a psoas abscess due to Campylobacter jejuni in a 68-year-old woman, as revealed by 16S rRNA gene and Campylobacter-specific PCRs from biopsied tissue.

Sleep-disordered breathing and heart failure a dangerous liaison.

In industrialized countries, heart failure has developed into a leading cause of death and hospitalization. It represents one of the most relevant drivers of health-related costs and is among the prime medical and societal challenges of future decades. Sleep-disordered breathing impacts adversely on quality of life and may further aggravate the heart failure syndrome, thus augmenting the high mortality risk associated with this disorder. This article reviews important pathophysiological interactions between both obstructive and central sleep apnea and coexistent heart failure and describes the available treatment options. Based on current evidence, an algorithm for the diagnosis and treatment of sleep-disordered breathing in heart failure is proposed, and future research perspectives are outlined.