Improving knowledge, attitudes, and practices on dengue and diarrhea in rural primary school students, their parents, and teachers in Colombia: A cluster-randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Improved education on water-related diseases in schools could help to reduce disease burden. This paper presents specific results on knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of a cluster-randomized controlled trial to reduce diarrheal disease and dengue entomological risk factors in rural primary schools in Colombia. The aim was to investigate whether enhanced educational interventions on dengue and diarrheal disease in schools could improve KAP scores related to these diseases in students and teachers in rural primary schools, as well as the students' parents. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A factorial cluster-randomized controlled trial was carried out in 35 rural primary schools in two municipalities in Cundinamarca, central Colombia. Schools were randomized into four arms: interventions related to diarrheal disease (DIA), dengue (DEN), both (DIADEN), or no interventions (control, CON). Both educational and physical interventions to reduce risk factors of dengue and diarrhea were implemented. Comprehensive teachers' manuals were developed and deployed to guide the learning activities. The intervention was carried out over two school years. The knowledge scores of students receiving dengue interventions (DEN, DIADEN) increased by 1.16 point score (0.75-1.56, p<0.001) and those receiving diarrhea interventions (DIA, DIADEN) increased by 1.15 point score (0.67-1.63, p<0.001). The attitude and practice scores of students receiving the diarrhea interventions increased (Attitudes: 0.41 [0.11-0.71, p = 0.01]; Practices: 0.33 [0.01-0.65, p = 0.042]), but not for those receiving the dengue interventions (p = 0.31 and p = 0.08, respectively). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: There were increases in knowledge scores among students, their teachers and their parents for both diseases. However, the attitudes and practices components were not affected to the same extent. The hypothesis that the students would disseminate knowledge acquired from the educational interventions to their parents was confirmed for dengue, but not for diarrhea. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN40195031 The trial is registered in the Current Controlled Trials under Infections and Infestations category.

Reasons for absenteeism in rural primary schools in two Colombian municipalities / Razones de ausentismo en escuelas primarias rurales de dos municipios colombianos / Razões do não comparecimento nas escolas primarias rurais nos municípios colombianos

Background: School absenteeism is a considerable problem generally related to higher dropout rates, poor academic achievement and school lag. This study determined the frequency and causes of overall and illness-related absenteeism of students in rural schools from two Colombian municipalities. Methods: A prospective and descriptive study was conducted in a population of 948 school children from 34 rural schools. Absenteeism data were collected for 2013 academic year consisted of the number of students registered and absent by grade, school, day and reason for absence. Absence rates (overall and illness-related absenteeism) were recorded, based on full or partial days absence, measured both as episodes, and accumulating the number of days. Results: From the students included in the study, 55.1% were male and 71.6% were between 5 and 9 years old. The overall absence rate was 5.7 episodes per child-year (95% confidence interval 5.5 to 5.8) and 8.6 days per child-year (8.4 to 8.9). The main reasons for non-attendance were illness (24.4%), medical or dental check-up (12.9%), travel (12.3%), lack of motivation to attend school (10.0%) and bad weather (9.3%). The illness- related absence rate was 1.4 episodes per child-year (95% confidence interval 1.3 to 1.5) and 2.5 days per child-year (2.4 to 2.6). The main reasons for illness-related absence were cold (37.0%), nonspecific fever (10.9%) and stomach pain or vomiting (8.4%). Conclusions: In this study, the most common reasons for non-attendance were illness-related. The importance of respiratory and gastrointestinal infections in absenteeism was evident, showing rates similar to other urban school studies. Then, the results of this study provide knowledge on the magnitude and reasons for absenteeism in rural schoolchildren.

Antecedentes. El ausentismo escolar es un problema importante relacionado con altas tasas de abandono escolar, bajo rendimiento académico y rezago escolar. Este estudio determinó la frecuencia y las causas del ausentismo general y el ausentismo relacionado con la enfermedad en estudiantes de escuelas rurales de dos municipios de Colombia. Métodos. Se realizó un estudio descriptivo en una población de 948 escolares de 34 escuelas rurales. Los datos de ausentismo recopilados para el año 2013 consistieron en el número de episodios y días de ausentismo por grado y motivo de ausencia general y por enfermedad. Se calcularon las tasas de ausentismo general y por enfermedad. Resultados. El 55,1% de la población participante eran hombres y el 71,6% tenían entre 5 y 9 años. La tasa de ausentismo general fue 5,7 episodios por niño-año, IC 95% (5,5-5,8) y 8,6 días por niño-año, IC 95% (8,4-8,9). Las principales razones del ausentismo fueron enfermedades (24,4%), chequeo médico u odontológico (12,9%), viajes (12,3%), falta de motivación para asistir a la escuela (10,0%) y mal clima (9,3%). La tasa de ausentismo por enfermedad fue 1,4 episodios por niño-año IC 95% (1,3-1,5) y 2,5 días por niño-año IC 95% (2,4-2,6). Las principales razones del ausentismo por enfermedad fueron el resfriado común (37,0%), la fiebre inespecífica (10,9%) y el dolor de estómago o vómito (8,4%). Conclusiones. Las razones más comunes para la no asistencia estuvieron relacionadas con la enfermedad. La importancia de las infecciones respiratorias y gastrointestinales en el absentismo fue evidente, mostrando tasas similares a las de otros estudios en escuelas urbanas. Los resultados de este estudio proporcionan conocimiento sobre la magnitud y las razones del absentismo en la población escolar rural.

Antecedentes. O absentismo escolar é um grande problema relacionado às altas taxas de evasão escolar, baixo desempenho acadêmico e atraso escolar. Este estudo determinou a frequência e causas do não comparecimento geral e por doenças em estudantes de escolas rurais de dois municípios da Colômbia. Métodos. Estudo descritivo, realizado em uma população de 948 escolares de 34 escolas rurais. Os dados de absentismo coletados para 2013 consistiram no número de episódios e dias de não comparecimento por grau e motivo da ausência geral e por doença, foram calculadas as taxas de cada evento. Resultados. 55,1% da população participante eram crianças masculinas do primeiro grau, 71,6% entre 5 e 9 anos de idade. A taxa geral de absentismo foi de 5,7 episódios por criança-ano, IC95% (5,5-5,8) e 8,6 dias por criança-ano, IC95% (8,4-8,9). Os principais motivos do não comparecimento foram doenças (24,4%), check-up médico ou odontológico (12,9%), viagens (12,3%), falta de motivação para frequentar a escola (10,0%) e mau tempo (9,3%). A taxa de absentismo da doença foi de 1,4 episódios por IC95% criança-ano (1,3-1,5) e 2,5 dias por IC95% criança-ano (2,4-2,6). Os principais motivos da ausência de doença foram resfriado comum (37,0%), febre inespecífica (10,9%) e dor de estômago ou vômito (8,4%). Conclusões. Os motivos mais comuns de não comparecimento foram relacionados à doença. A importância das infecções respiratórias e gastrointestinais no absenteísmo foi evidente, mostrando taxas semelhantes às de outros estudos em escolas urbanas. Os resultados deste estudo fornecem informações sobre a magnitude e as razões para evasão escolar na população escolar rural.

Intestinal parasitic infections and associated factors in children of three rural schools in Colombia. A cross-sectional study.

Rural children are one of the populations that are most vulnerable to gastrointestinal parasite infections. Such diseases decrease the quality of life and result in growth and cognitive delays in the long term. This cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the frequency of intestinal parasite infections among rural schoolchildren in the municipality of Apulo, Colombia. A total of 97 stool samples from children aged between 5 and 15 years were collected and examined via direct light microscopy. Microscopic examination was repeated with sediments obtained using a fecal parasite concentrator, and the Kato-Katz test was performed. Frequency of intestinal parasite infection was 100%. Endolimax nana (77.35%), Blastocystis sp. (71.1%), Giardia intestinalis (39.1%), Entamoeba coli (25.7%), and the Entamoeba histolytica/dispar/moshkovskii complex (9.2%) were the most prevalent protozoa. Trichuris trichiura was the most prevalent helminth (12.3%), followed by Enterobius vermicularis (6.15%) and Ascaris lumbricoides (5.1%). Among the analyzed associated factors, consumption of untreated water increased the risk of acquiring pathogenic intestinal parasites. Finally, because G. intestinalis was the most prevalent pathogenic protozoan, molecular analysis was conducted to establish genetic assemblages and subassemblages of Giardia through sequence-based genotyping of the glutamate dehydrogenase, triose phosphate isomerase, and beta-giardin genes. A total of 14 G. intestinalis-positive samples were genotyped, which revealed the presence of subassemblages AI (n = 1), AII (n = 7), BIII (n = 2), BIV (n = 2), and BIII/BIV (n = 1) as well as a mixed subassemblage AII + BIII (n = 1). Our results indicate that gastrointestinal parasite infections in the tested population were mainly caused by suboptimal water quality. Moreover, molecular typing of G. intestinalis suggested contamination of water by animal- and human-derived cysts.

[Sustainability of interventions to prevent dengue and diarrhea in rural schools in two municipalities in Colombia: a two-year post-project evaluation]. / Sostenibilidad en intervenciones para la prevención de dengue y diarrea en escuelas rurales de dos municipios de Colombia: evaluación de dos años post-proyecto.

This study evaluated the sustainability of a set of interventions to prevent dengue and diarrhea in 33 rural schools in the municipalities (counties) of Anapoima and La Mesa, Colombia, two years post-project. The study measured sustainability in two categories: maintenance of the benefits and the interventions, and institutionalization and community capacity-building. The sustainability of the interventions was compared across four arms: interventions to prevent diarrhea, to prevent dengue, combined interventions to prevent diarrhea and dengue, and control. The final score for each arm was classified in five levels of sustainability: regressive, not sustainable, moderately sustainable, sustainable, and highly sustainable. The arms were compared with ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis test, with significance set at 0.05. At two years post-project, the overall sustainability for the prevention of diarrhea was moderate in the four arms, while dengue prevention was not sustainable in three of the four arms, without statistically significant differences. Sustainability levels also varied in terms of benefits, interventions, capacity-building, and institutionalization. Maintenance of benefits and interventions in both diseases was more sustainable than institutionalization and capacity-building. The analysis of these variables is important for identifying the different factors that influence projects' sustainability, related to their design and execution, organizational framework, and social context.

Este estudio evaluó la sostenibilidad de un conjunto de intervenciones para la prevención del dengue y la diarrea, en 33 escuelas rurales en los municipios de Anapoima y La Mesa, Colombia, dos años post-proyecto. Se midió la sostenibilidad en dos categorías: mantenimiento de los beneficios e intervenciones, e institucionalización y desarrollo de capacidades de la comunidad. Se comparó la sostenibilidad de las intervenciones que fueron distribuidas en cuatro brazos: intervenciones para prevenir la diarrea, para prevenir el dengue, combinadas para prevenir la diarrea y el dengue, y control. El puntaje final de cada brazo se clasificó en uno de cinco niveles de sostenibilidad: regresivo, no sostenible, moderadamente sostenible, sostenible y altamente sostenible. Se compararon los brazos mediante las pruebas ANOVA y Kruskal-Wallis, con un nivel de significancia de 0,05. A los dos años post-proyecto, se observa que el nivel total de sostenibilidad para la prevención de diarrea fue moderadamente sostenible en los cuatro brazos y para dengue no sostenible en tres de los cuatro brazos, sin encontrar diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre estos. También se observa que los niveles de sostenibilidad varían, en cuanto a los beneficios, intervenciones, desarrollo de capacidades e institucionalización. El mantenimiento de los beneficios y de las intervenciones en ambas enfermedades fue más sostenible que la institucionalización y desarrollo de capacidades. Es importante el análisis de estas variables para identificar los diferentes factores que influyen en la sostenibilidad de los proyectos, relacionados con el diseño y ejecución de estos, con el marco organizacional, y con el contexto social.

Este estudo avaliou a sustentabilidade de um conjunto de intervenções para a prevenção de dengue e diarreia, em 33 escolas rurais nos municípios de Anapoima e La Mesa, Colômbia, dois anos pós-projeto. A sustentabilidade foi medida em duas categorias: manutenção dos benefícios e intervenções, e institucionalização e desenvolvimento de capacidades da comunidade. Foi comparada a sustentabilidade das intervenções que foram distribuídas em quatro áreas: intervenções para prevenir a diarreia, e também o dengue, combinadas para prevenir a diarreia e o dengue, e o controle. A pontuação final de cada área foi classificada em um entre cinco níveis de sustentabilidade: regressivo, não sustentável, moderadamente sustentável, sustentável e altamente sustentável. As diferentes áreas foram comparadas através das provas ANOVA e Kruskal-Wallis, com um nível de significância de 0,05. Em dois anos pós-projeto, foi observado que o nível total de sustentabilidade para a prevenção de diarreia foi moderadamente sustentável nas quatro áreas e para dengue não sustentável em três das quatro áreas, sem encontrar diferenças estatisticamente significativas entre elas. Também foi observado que os níveis de sustentabilidade variam, em quanto aos benefícios, intervenções, desenvolvimento de capacidades e institucionalização. A manutenção dos benefícios e das intervenções em ambas as doenças foi mais sustentável do que a institucionalização e desenvolvimento de capacidades. É importante o análise destas variáveis para identificar os diferentes fatores que influem na sustentabilidade dos projetos, em relação com o desenho e execução destes, com o marco organizativo, e com o contexto social.

Sostenibilidad en intervenciones para la prevención de dengue y diarrea en escuelas rurales de dos municipios de Colombia: evaluación de dos años post-proyecto / Sustainability of interventions to prevent dengue and diarrhea in rural schools in two municipalities in Colombia: a two-year post-project evaluation / Sustentabilidade em intervenções para a prevenção de dengue e diarreia em escolas rurais de dois municípios da Colômbia: avaliação de dois anos pós-projeto

Este estudio evaluó la sostenibilidad de un conjunto de intervenciones para la prevención del dengue y la diarrea, en 33 escuelas rurales en los municipios de Anapoima y La Mesa, Colombia, dos años post-proyecto. Se midió la sostenibilidad en dos categorías: mantenimiento de los beneficios e intervenciones, e institucionalización y desarrollo de capacidades de la comunidad. Se comparó la sostenibilidad de las intervenciones que fueron distribuidas en cuatro brazos: intervenciones para prevenir la diarrea, para prevenir el dengue, combinadas para prevenir la diarrea y el dengue, y control. El puntaje final de cada brazo se clasificó en uno de cinco niveles de sostenibilidad: regresivo, no sostenible, moderadamente sostenible, sostenible y altamente sostenible. Se compararon los brazos mediante las pruebas ANOVA y Kruskal-Wallis, con un nivel de significancia de 0,05. A los dos años post-proyecto, se observa que el nivel total de sostenibilidad para la prevención de diarrea fue moderadamente sostenible en los cuatro brazos y para dengue no sostenible en tres de los cuatro brazos, sin encontrar diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre estos. También se observa que los niveles de sostenibilidad varían, en cuanto a los beneficios, intervenciones, desarrollo de capacidades e institucionalización. El mantenimiento de los beneficios y de las intervenciones en ambas enfermedades fue más sostenible que la institucionalización y desarrollo de capacidades. Es importante el análisis de estas variables para identificar los diferentes factores que influyen en la sostenibilidad de los proyectos, relacionados con el diseño y ejecución de estos, con el marco organizacional, y con el contexto social.

This study evaluated the sustainability of a set of interventions to prevent dengue and diarrhea in 33 rural schools in the municipalities (counties) of Anapoima and La Mesa, Colombia, two years post-project. The study measured sustainability in two categories: maintenance of the benefits and the interventions, and institutionalization and community capacity-building. The sustainability of the interventions was compared across four arms: interventions to prevent diarrhea, to prevent dengue, combined interventions to prevent diarrhea and dengue, and control. The final score for each arm was classified in five levels of sustainability: regressive, not sustainable, moderately sustainable, sustainable, and highly sustainable. The arms were compared with ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis test, with significance set at 0.05. At two years post-project, the overall sustainability for the prevention of diarrhea was moderate in the four arms, while dengue prevention was not sustainable in three of the four arms, without statistically significant differences. Sustainability levels also varied in terms of benefits, interventions, capacity-building, and institutionalization. Maintenance of benefits and interventions in both diseases was more sustainable than institutionalization and capacity-building. The analysis of these variables is important for identifying the different factors that influence projects' sustainability, related to their design and execution, organizational framework, and social context.

Este estudo avaliou a sustentabilidade de um conjunto de intervenções para a prevenção de dengue e diarreia, em 33 escolas rurais nos municípios de Anapoima e La Mesa, Colômbia, dois anos pós-projeto. A sustentabilidade foi medida em duas categorias: manutenção dos benefícios e intervenções, e institucionalização e desenvolvimento de capacidades da comunidade. Foi comparada a sustentabilidade das intervenções que foram distribuídas em quatro áreas: intervenções para prevenir a diarreia, e também o dengue, combinadas para prevenir a diarreia e o dengue, e o controle. A pontuação final de cada área foi classificada em um entre cinco níveis de sustentabilidade: regressivo, não sustentável, moderadamente sustentável, sustentável e altamente sustentável. As diferentes áreas foram comparadas através das provas ANOVA e Kruskal-Wallis, com um nível de significância de 0,05. Em dois anos pós-projeto, foi observado que o nível total de sustentabilidade para a prevenção de diarreia foi moderadamente sustentável nas quatro áreas e para dengue não sustentável em três das quatro áreas, sem encontrar diferenças estatisticamente significativas entre elas. Também foi observado que os níveis de sustentabilidade variam, em quanto aos benefícios, intervenções, desenvolvimento de capacidades e institucionalização. A manutenção dos benefícios e das intervenções em ambas as doenças foi mais sustentável do que a institucionalização e desenvolvimento de capacidades. É importante o análise destas variáveis para identificar os diferentes fatores que influem na sustentabilidade dos projetos, em relação com o desenho e execução destes, com o marco organizativo, e com o contexto social.

Cómo intervenir y prevenir el retraso del crecimiento en niños menores de cinco años de hogares incluidos en el Sisbén de Caldas / How to intervene and prevent stunting of children from homes belonging to the Sisbén in Caldas

Resumen Introducción. El retraso del crecimiento o la desnutrición crónica (baja estatura para la edad) indica un fracaso en el logro del potencial genético con el que nacemos. Objetivo. Estimar modelos predictivos de retraso del crecimiento en hogares con menores de cinco años en el departamento de Caldas, inscritos en el Sistema de Identificación de Potenciales Beneficiarios de Programas Sociales (Sisbén). Materiales y métodos. Se hizo un estudio analítico en todos los hogares (N=56.987) incluidos en la base de datos del Sisbén III con presencia de menores de cinco años (N=33.244). Las variables estudiadas fueron las características demográficas y socioeconómicas, el acceso a la salud, la vivienda, la pobreza, la educación, el mercado laboral y el retraso del crecimiento. El análisis multivariado se realizó en dos fases: en la primera, se llevó a cabo un análisis exploratorio en los hogares mediante un análisis de clasificación jerárquica (conglomerado) y, luego, se estimó un modelo no lineal predictivo (probit) con el retraso del crecimiento como variable dependiente. Resultados. La mayor proporción de retraso del crecimiento en los menores de cinco años se encontró en la subregión Centro Sur, en la cabecera municipal y en los hogares con ingresos menores de USD$65 mensuales. Conclusión. La pobreza de los hogares caldenses con jefatura femenina en los que viven los menores de cinco años inscritos en el Sisbén, es el mayor predictor de su retraso en el crecimiento.

Abstract Introduction: Growth retardation or chronic malnutrition (low height for age) indicates a failure in the natural genetic potential that allows us to growth. Objective: To estimate predictive models of growth retardation in households with children younger than five years in the department of Caldas and registered in the identification system of potential beneficiaries of social programs ( Sistema de Identificación de Potenciales Beneficiarios de Programas Sociales, Sisbén ). Materials and methods: We conducted an analytical study in all households (N=56,987) included in the Sisbén III database with the presence of children younger than five years (N=33,244). The variables under study were demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, health service access, housing, poverty, education, job market, and growth retardation. The multivariate analysis was done in two phases: first, an exploratory analysis of households using hierarchical classification (cluster), then estimation of a nonlinear predictive model (probit) with growth retardation as the dependent variable. Results. The largest proportion of growth retardation in children younger than five years was found in southcentral Caldas, in urban centers, and households with monthly income lower than USD$ 65. Conclusion. Poverty in Caldas women-headed households with children younger than five years registered in the Sisbén was the main predictor of growth retardation.

[Spatial distribution of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) in the rural area of two municipalities of Cundinamarca, Colombia].

INTRODUCTION: It is difficult to adapt or create new strategies for dengue control in rural areas due to the dispersion of homes and the lack of knowledge about the presence and behavior of the vector in these areas. Spatial data analysis could help understand time and space dynamics related to the transmission of vector-borne diseases in rural areas and, thus, contribute to the prevention and control of dengue. OBJECTIVE: To determine the probability of the presence of the dengue vector Aedes aegypti in the rural area of the municipalities of Anapoima and La Mesa, in the central area of Colombia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The probability of the presence or absence of the vector in the study area was determined by means of the kriging spatial interpolation method. RESULTS: The region with the highest probability of the presence of the vector was located in the central part, close to the urban centers of both municipalities. CONCLUSION: This study shows the importance of geostatistics for the surveillance of vector-borne diseases and the analysis of time and space dynamics of vector insects and of diseases transmitted by them.

Distribución espacial de Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) en el área rural de dos municipios de Cundinamarca, Colombia / Spatial distribution of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) in the rural area of two municipalities of Cundinamarca, Colombia

Resumen Introducción. Es difícil adaptar o formular nuevas estrategias para el control del dengue en las áreas rurales debido a la dispersión de los hogares y a la falta de conocimiento sobre la presencia y el comportamiento del vector en estas áreas. El análisis de los datos espaciales podría ayudar a comprender las dinámicas temporales y espaciales relacionadas con la transmisión de enfermedades transmitidas por vectores en las zonas rurales y, por lo tanto, contribuir a la prevención y el control del dengue. Objetivo. Determinar la probabilidad de la presencia del vector del dengue, Aedes aegypti, en el área rural de los municipios de Anapoima y La Mesa, Cundinamarca, Colombia. Materiales y métodos. Se visitaron 102 viviendas del área rural, se inspeccionaron los criaderos potenciales del mosquito A. aegypti y se capturaron las formas adultas encontradas en su interior. La probabilidad de la presencia o la ausencia del vector en el área de estudio, se estableció mediante el método de interpolación espacial kriging. Resultados. La región con mayor probabilidad para la presencia del vector se encontró en la parte central, cerca de los centros urbanos de los dos municipios. Conclusión. Los análisis de las dinámicas espacio-temporales de los vectores de enfermedades pueden utilizarse en los sistemas para su vigilancia, con el fin de complementar los métodos usados actualmente, optimizar la determinación de las áreas de intervención de control vectorial y ahorrar recursos.

Abstract Introduction: It is difficult to adapt or create new strategies for dengue control in rural areas due to the dispersion of homes and the lack of knowledge about the presence and behavior of the vector in these areas. Spatial data analysis could help understand time and space dynamics related to the transmission of vector-borne diseases in rural areas and, thus, contribute to the prevention and control of dengue. Objective: To determine the probability of the presence of the dengue vector Aedes aegypti in the rural area of the municipalities of Anapoima and La Mesa, in the central area of Colombia. Materials and methods: The probability of the presence or absence of the vector in the study area was determined by means of the kriging spatial interpolation method. Results: The region with the highest probability of the presence of the vector was located in the central part, close to the urban centers of both municipalities. Conclusion: This study shows the importance of geostatistics for the surveillance of vector-borne diseases and the analysis of time and space dynamics of vector insects and of diseases transmitted by them.

A cross-sectional survey of Aedes aegypti immature abundance in urban and rural household containers in central Colombia.

BACKGROUND: Aedes aegypti, the major vector of dengue, breeds in domestic water containers. The development of immature mosquitoes in such containers is influenced by various environmental, ecological and socioeconomic factors. Urban and rural disparities in water storage practices and water source supply may affect mosquito immature abundance and, potentially, dengue risk. We evaluated the effect of water and container characteristics on A. aegypti immature abundance in urban and rural areas. Data were collected in the wet season of 2011 in central Colombia from 36 urban and 35 rural containers, which were either mosquito-positive or negative. Immature mosquitoes were identified to species. Data on water and container characteristics were collected from all containers. RESULTS: A total of 1452 Aedes pupae and larvae were collected of which 81% were A. aegypti and 19% A. fluviatilis. Aedes aegypti immatures were found in both urban and rural sites. However, the mean number of A. aegypti pupae was five times higher in containers in the urban sites compared to those in the rural sites. One of the important factors associated with A. aegypti infestation was frequency of container washing. Monthly-washed or never-washed containers were both about four times more likely to be infested than those washed every week. There were no significant differences between urban and rural sites in frequency of washing containers. Aedes aegypti immature infestation was positively associated with total dissolved solids, but negatively associated with dissolved oxygen. Water temperature, total dissolved solids, ammonia, nitrate, and organic matter were significantly higher in urban than in rural containers, which might explain urban-rural differences in breeding of A. aegypti. However, many of these factors vary substantially between studies and in their degree of association with vector breeding, therefore they may not be reliable indices for vector control interventions. CONCLUSIONS: Although containers in urban areas were more likely to be infested with A. aegypti, rural containers still provide suitable habitats for A. aegypti. Containers that are washed more frequent are less likely to produce A. aegypti. These results highlight the importance of container washing as an effective vector control tool in both urban and rural areas. In addition, alternative designs of the highly productive washbasins should continue to be explored. To control diseases such as dengue, Zika and chikungunya, effective vector breeding site control must be implemented in addition to other interventions.

[How to intervene and prevent stunting of children from homes belonging to the Sisbén in Caldas].

INTRODUCTION: Growth retardation or chronic malnutrition (low height for age) indicates a failure in the natural genetic potential that allows us to growth. OBJECTIVE: To estimate predictive models of growth retardation in households with children younger than five years in the department of Caldas and registered in the identification system of potential beneficiaries of social programs (Sistema de Identificación de Potenciales Beneficiarios de Programas Sociales, Sisbén). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted an analytical study in all households (N=56,987) included in the Sisbén III database with the presence of children younger than five years (N=33,244). The variables under study were demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, health service access, housing, poverty, education, job market, and growth retardation. The multivariate analysis was done in two phases: first, an exploratory analysis of households using hierarchical classification (cluster), then estimation of a nonlinear predictive model (probit) with growth retardation as the dependent variable. RESULTS: The largest proportion of growth retardation in children younger than five years was found in southcentral Caldas, in urban centers, and households with monthly income lower than USD$ 65. CONCLUSION: Poverty in Caldas women-headed households with children younger than five years registered in the Sisbén was the main predictor of growth retardation.

A Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial to Reduce Diarrheal Disease and Dengue Entomological Risk Factors in Rural Primary Schools in Colombia.

BACKGROUND: As many neglected tropical diseases are co-endemic and have common risk factors, integrated control can efficiently reduce disease burden and relieve resource-strained public health budgets. Diarrheal diseases and dengue fever are major global health problems sharing common risk factors in water storage containers. Where provision of clean water is inadequate, water storage is crucial. Fecal contamination of stored water is a common source of diarrheal illness, but stored water also provides breeding sites for dengue vector mosquitoes. Integrating improved water management and educational strategies for both diseases in the school environment can potentially improve the health situation for students and the larger community. The objective of this trial was to investigate whether interventions targeting diarrhea and dengue risk factors would significantly reduce absence due to diarrheal disease and dengue entomological risk factors in schools. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A factorial cluster randomized controlled trial was carried out in 34 rural primary schools (1,301 pupils) in La Mesa and Anapoima municipalities, Cundinamarca, Colombia. Schools were randomized to one of four study arms: diarrhea interventions (DIA), dengue interventions (DEN), combined diarrhea and dengue interventions (DIADEN), and control (CON). Interventions had no apparent effect on pupil school absence due to diarrheal disease (p = 0.45) or on adult female Aedes aegypti density (p = 0.32) (primary outcomes). However, the dengue interventions reduced the Breteau Index on average by 78% (p = 0.029), with Breteau indices of 10.8 and 6.2 in the DEN and DIADEN arms, respectively compared to 37.5 and 46.9 in the DIA and CON arms, respectively. The diarrhea interventions improved water quality as assessed by the amount of Escherichia coli colony forming units (CFU); the ratio of Williams mean E. coli CFU being 0.22, or 78% reduction (p = 0.008). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Integrated control of dengue and diarrhea has never been conducted before. This trial presents an example for application of control strategies that may affect both diseases and the first study to apply such an approach in school settings. The interventions were well received and highly appreciated by students and teachers. An apparent absence of effect in primary outcome indicators could be the result of pupils being exposed to risk factors outside the school area and mosquitoes flying in from nearby uncontrolled breeding sites. Integrated interventions targeting these diseases in a school context remain promising because of the reduced mosquito breeding and improved water quality, as well as educational benefits. However, to improve outcomes in future integrated approaches, simultaneous interventions in communities, in addition to schools, should be considered; using appropriate combinations of site-specific, effective, acceptable, and affordable interventions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov no. ISRCTN40195031.

Schools as Potential Risk Sites for Vector-Borne Disease Transmission: Mosquito Vectors in Rural Schools in Two Municipalities in Colombia.

Dengue and other vector-borne diseases are of great public health importance in Colombia. Vector surveillance and control activities are often focused at the household level. Little is known about the importance of nonhousehold sites, including schools, in maintaining vector-borne disease transmission. The objectives of this paper were to determine the mosquito species composition in rural schools in 2 municipalities in Colombia and to assess the potential risk of vector-borne disease transmission in school settings. Entomological surveys were carried out in rural schools during the dry and rainy seasons of 2011. A total of 12 mosquito species were found: Aedes aegypti, Anopheles pseudopunctipennis, Culex coronator, Cx. quinquefasciatus, and Limatus durhamii in both immature and adult forms; Ae. fluviatilis, Cx. nigripalpus, Cx. corniger, and Psorophora ferox in immature forms only; and Ae. angustivittatus, Haemagogus equinus, and Trichoprosopon lampropus in adult forms only. The most common mosquito species was Cx. quinquefasciatus. Classrooms contained the greatest abundance of adult female Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus. The most common Ae. aegypti breeding sites were containers classified as "others" (e.g., cans), followed by containers used for water storage. A high level of Ae. aegypti infestation was found during the wet season. Our results suggest that rural schools are potentially important foci for the transmission of dengue and other mosquito-borne diseases. We propose that public health programs should be implemented in rural schools to prevent vector-borne diseases.

Resultados de un conjunto de intervenciones integradas para reducir la diarrea y el riesgo entomológico para dengue en las escuelas rurales del municipio de Apulo, Cundinamarca, Colombia / Results of a set of integrated interventions to reduce diarrhea and dengue entomological risk in rural schools in the municipality of Apulo, Cundinamarca, Colombia

Determinar si un conjunto de intervenciones integradas implementadas en las instituciones educativas rurales del municipio de Apulo, Cundinamarca, mejoran la calidad del agua para consumo y reducen la infestación del mosquito vector, reduciendo los factores de riesgo para diarrea y dengue. Materiales y métodos. Se llevó a cabo un estudio cuasiexperimental, antes y después de la intervención, en el cual participaron 350 estudiantes de 14 instituciones rurales del municipio. Se implementó un conjunto de intervenciones para la prevención de las dos enfermedades: para diarrea, instalación de filtros, lavado y tapado de tanques de agua para consumo, y prácticas de higiene; para dengue, tapado de tanques y albercas, y manejo de los residuos sólidos. Resultados. Los índices de infestación de las escuelas por formas inmaduras de Aedes aegypti y de pupas por persona, fueron menores después de la intervención, siendo el último estadísticamente significativo. Con relación a la calidad del agua para consumo, después de la intervención se logró reducir el porcentaje de muestras positivas y la media geométrica de la concentración de las muestras positivas para Escherichia coli, tanto en el total de las muestras, como en las tomadas en los tanques y en las tomadas antes y después de filtrar. Estas diferencias no fueron estadísticamente significativas entre los dos periodos. Después de las intervenciones, se observó una reducción significativa en las tasas de ausentismo general por enfermedad, específicamente, por diarrea e infecciones respiratorias agudas. Conclusión. Se evaluó un conjunto de intervenciones integradas para la prevención de la diarrea y el dengue, enfermedades que tienen en común las prácticas inadecuadas en el almacenamiento del agua para consumo...

To determine if a set of integrated interventions implemented in rural education institutions in the municipality of Apulo, Cundinamarca, improve the quality of potable water and reduce the infestation of the mosquito vector, reducing risk factors for diarrhea and dengue. Materials and methods: A quasi-experimental study, pre and post intervention, with the participation of 350 students from 14 rural education institutions in the municipality was carried out. A set of interventions for the prevention of the two diseases was implemented; for diarrhea: installation of filters, cleaning and covering of potable water tanks, and hygiene practices, and for dengue: covering of tanks and reservoirs and management of solid waste. Results: Infestation rates in schools by immature forms of Aedes aegypti and of pupa/person were less in the post-intervention stage, being this last one statistically significant. In relation to the quality of potable water in the post-intervention stage, a reduction in the percentage of positive samples was achieved, as well as in the geometric mean of the positive samples for Escherichia coli in the totality of samples, in the samples taken in the tanks, and in the samples taken before and after filtering. These differences were not statistically significant between the two periods. A significant reduction in the general absenteeism rates was observed due to illness; specifically, due to diarrhea and acute respiratory diseases. Conclusion: This study evaluated a set of integrated interventions for the prevention of diarrhea and dengue, diseases that share inadequate practices in the storage of drinkable water...

Control de diarrea y dengue en escuelas primarias rurales de Colombia: protocolo de estudio para un ensayo aleatorio y controlado por conglomerados / Diarrhea and dengue control in rural primary schools in Colombia: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

Antecedentes. Las enfermedades diarreicas y el dengue son graves problemas de salud pública a nivel global. Cuando el suministro de agua potable es inadecuado, el almacenamiento de agua es crucial. La contaminación fecal del agua almacenada es una fuente común de las enfermedades diarreicas y, al mismo tiempo, el agua almacenada proporciona criaderos para los mosquitos vectores del dengue. Un manejo deficiente del agua doméstica y del saneamiento son, por lo tanto, determinantes potenciales de ambas enfermedades. Poco se sabe de la importancia del agua almacenada para el riesgo combinado de la diarrea y el dengue, sin embargo, una intervención compartida podría ser importante para el desarrollo de esfuerzos en gestión y control integrado. Aun menos conocidos son los efectos de un control integrado de estas enfermedades en los entornos escolares. El objetivo de este estudio fue investigar si las intervenciones contra la diarrea y el dengue reducían significativamente las enfermedades diarreicas y los factores de riesgo entomológico de dengue, en las escuelas primarias rurales de dos municipios de Cundinamarca. Metodología y diseño. Se trata de un ensayo por conglomerados, factorial de 2 x 2, controlado y de asignación aleatoria. Las instituciones elegibles fueron las escuelas rurales de los municipios de La Mesa y Anapoima en el departamento de Cundinamarca. Los estudiantes elegibles fueron los niños de las escuelas de los grados 0 a 5. Las escuelas fueron asignadas aleatoriamente a uno de los cuatro grupos del estudio: intervenciones de diarrea, intervenciones de dengue, las dos intervenciones, diarrea y dengue, y control. Las escuelas fueron estratificadas por municipio y asignadas mediante un acto público al inicio del ensayo. La variable de respuesta primaria para la diarrea fue la tasa de incidencia de diarrea en los niños de las escuelas, y para dengue, la densidad de adultos hembra de Aedes aegypti por escuela. Aproximadamente...

Background: Diarrheal diseases and dengue fever are major global health problems. Where provision of clean water is inadequate, water storage is crucial. Fecal contamination of stored water is a common source of diarrheal illness, but stored water also provides breeding sites for dengue vector mosquitoes. Poor household water management and sanitation are therefore potential determinants of both diseases. Little is known of the role of stored water for the combined risk of diarrhea and dengue, yet a joint role would be important for developing integrated control and management efforts. Even less is known of the effect of integrating control of these diseases in school settings. The objective of this trial was to investigate whether interventions against diarrhea and dengue will significantly reduce diarrheal disease and dengue entomological risk factors in rural primary schools. Methods/design: This is a 2×2 factorial cluster randomized controlled trial. Eligible schools were rural primary schools in La Mesa and Anapoima municipalities, Cundinamarca, Colombia. Eligible pupils were school children in grades 0 to 5. Schools were randomized to one of four study arms: diarrhea interventions (DIA); dengue interventions (DEN); combined diarrea and dengue interventions (DIADEN); and control (C). Schools were allocated publicly in each municipality (strata) at the start of the trial, obviating the need for allocation concealment. The primary outcome for diarrea is incidence rate of diarrhea in school children and for dengue it is density of adult female Aedes aegypti per school. Approximately 800 pupils from 34 schools were enrolled in the trial with eight schools in the DIA arm, nine in the DEN, eight in the DIADEN, and nine in the control arms. The trial was funded by the Research Council of Norway and the Lazos de Calandaima Foundation. Discussion: This is the first trial investigating...

Diarrhea and dengue control in rural primary schools in Colombia: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Diarrheal diseases and dengue fever are major global health problems. Where provision of clean water is inadequate, water storage is crucial. Fecal contamination of stored water is a common source of diarrheal illness, but stored water also provides breeding sites for dengue vector mosquitoes. Poor household water management and sanitation are therefore potential determinants of both diseases. Little is known of the role of stored water for the combined risk of diarrhea and dengue, yet a joint role would be important for developing integrated control and management efforts. Even less is known of the effect of integrating control of these diseases in school settings. The objective of this trial was to investigate whether interventions against diarrhea and dengue will significantly reduce diarrheal disease and dengue entomological risk factors in rural primary schools. METHODS/DESIGN: This is a 2×2 factorial cluster randomized controlled trial. Eligible schools were rural primary schools in La Mesa and Anapoima municipalities, Cundinamarca, Colombia. Eligible pupils were school children in grades 0 to 5. Schools were randomized to one of four study arms: diarrhea interventions (DIA); dengue interventions (DEN); combined diarrhea and dengue interventions (DIADEN); and control (C). Schools were allocated publicly in each municipality (strata) at the start of the trial, obviating the need for allocation concealment. The primary outcome for diarrhea is incidence rate of diarrhea in school children and for dengue it is density of adult female Aedes aegypti per school. Approximately 800 pupils from 34 schools were enrolled in the trial with eight schools in the DIA arm, nine in the DEN, eight in the DIADEN, and nine in the control arms. The trial status as of June 2012 was: completed baseline data collections; enrollment, randomization, and allocation of schools. The trial was funded by the Research Council of Norway and the Lazos de Calandaima Foundation. DISCUSSION: This is the first trial investigating the effect of a set of integrated interventions to control both dengue and diarrhea. This is also the first trial to study the combination of diarrhea-dengue disease control in school settings. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN40195031.