Alterations in Antioxidant Status and Erythrocyte Properties in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Erythrocytes are responsible for the transport of oxygen within the organism, which is particularly important for nerve tissues. Erythrocyte quality has been shown to be deteriorated in oxidative stress conditions. In this study, we measured the same series of oxidative stress markers in plasma and erythrocytes to compare the differences between neurotypical children (controls) and children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We also focused on erythrocyte properties including their deformability, osmotic resistance, Na,K-ATPase activity, nitric oxide levels and free radical levels in children with ASD and controls. Greater oxidative damage to proteins and lipids was observed in the erythrocytes than in the plasma of ASD subjects. Additionally, antioxidant enzymes were more active in plasma samples from ASD children than in their erythrocytes. Significantly higher nitric oxide level and Na,K-ATPase enzyme activity were detected in erythrocytes of ASD individuals in comparison with the controls. Changes in oxidative status could at least partially contribute to the deterioration of erythrocyte morphology, as more frequent echinocyte formation was detected in ASD individuals. These alterations are most probably responsible for worsening the erythrocyte deformability observed in children with ASD. We can conclude that abnormalities in antioxidant status and erythrocyte properties could be involved in the pathomechanisms of ASD and eventually contribute to its clinical manifestations.

Aging in Normotensive and Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats: Focus on Erythrocyte Properties.

Erythrocyte deformability, crucial for oxygen delivery to tissues, plays an important role in the etiology of various diseases. As the factor maintaining the erythrocyte deformability, nitric oxide (NO) has been identified. Reduced NO bioavailability also plays a role in the pathogenesis of hypertension. Our aim was to determine whether aging and hypertension affect erythrocyte deformability and NO production by erythrocytes in experimental animals divided into six groups according to age (7, 20 and 52 weeks), labeled WKY-7, WKY-20 and WKY-52 for normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats, and SHR-7, SHR-20 and SHR-52 for spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). The filtration method for the determination of erythrocyte deformability and the fluorescent probe DAF-2 DA for NO production were applied. Deformability and NO production by erythrocytes increased at a younger age, while a decrease in both parameters was observed at an older age. Strain-related differences in deformability were observed at 7 and 52 weeks of age. SHR-7 had reduced deformability and SHR-52 had increased deformability compared with age-matched WKY. Changes in NO production under hypertensive conditions are an unlikely primary factor affecting erythrocyte deformability, whereas age-related changes in deformability are at least partially associated with changes in NO production. However, an interpretation of data obtained in erythrocyte parameters observed in SHRs of human hypertension requires precaution.

Effects of Taxifolin in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats with a Focus on Erythrocyte Quality.

Oxidative stress and multiple erythrocyte abnormalities have been observed in hypertension. We focused on the effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) inhibition by MLN-4760 inhibitor on angiotensin peptides, oxidative stress parameters, and selected erythrocyte quality markers in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). We also investigated the potential effects of polyphenolic antioxidant taxifolin when applied in vivo and in vitro following its incubation with erythrocytes. SHRs were divided into four groups: control, taxifolin-treated, MLN-4760-treated, and MLN-4760 with taxifolin. MLN-4760 administration increased the blood pressure rise independent of taxifolin treatment, whereas taxifolin decreased it in control SHRs. Body weight gain was also higher in ACE2-inhibited animals and normalized after taxifolin treatment. However, taxifolin did not induce any change in angiotensin peptide concentrations nor a clear antioxidant effect. We documented an increase in Na,K-ATPase enzyme activity in erythrocyte membranes of ACE2-inhibited SHRs after taxifolin treatment. In conclusion, ACE2 inhibition deteriorated some selected RBC properties in SHRs. Although taxifolin treatment did not improve oxidative stress markers, our data confirmed the blood pressure-lowering potential, anti-obesogenic effect, and some "erythroprotective" effects of this compound in both control and ACE2-inhibited SHRs. In vitro investigations documenting different effects of taxifolin on erythrocyte properties from control and ACE2-inhibited SHRs accentuated the irreplaceability of in vivo studies.

Monocrotaline-Induced Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension and Bosentan Treatment in Rats: Focus on Plasma and Erythrocyte Parameters.

The objective of our study was to contribute to the characterization of monocrotaline-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) in a rat model, with emphasis on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, parameters of oxidative stress, the activity of matrix metalloproteinases, and erythrocyte parameters. Moreover, we aimed to analyze the effects of bosentan. Experiments were performed on 12-week-old male Wistar rats randomly assigned to 3 groups: control, monocrotaline-treated (60 mg/kg), and monocrotaline combined with bosentan (300 mg/kg/day). Our study confirmed the well-known effects of monocrotaline administration on lungs and the right ventricle, as well as pulmonary arterial pressure. In addition, we observed activation of the alternative pathway of the renin-angiotensin system, namely an increase in angiotensin (Ang) 1-7 and Ang 1-5 together with an increase in Ang I, but without any change in Ang II level, and downregulation of aldosterone 4 weeks after monocrotaline administration. For the first time, modifications of erythrocyte Na,K-ATPase enzyme kinetics were demonstrated as well. Our observations do not support data obtained in PAH patients showing an increase in Ang II levels, increase in oxidative stress, and deterioration in RBC deformability. Although bosentan primarily targets the vascular smooth muscle, our study confirmed its antioxidant effect. The obtained data suggest that besides the known action of bosentan, it decreases heart rate and increases erythrocyte deformability, and hence could have a beneficial hemodynamic effect in the PAH condition.

Na,K-ATPase Kinetics and Oxidative Stress in Kidneys of Zucker Diabetic Fatty (fa/fa) Rats Depending on the Diabetes Severity-Comparison with Lean (fa/+) and Wistar Rats.

For a better insight into relations between type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and Na,K-ATPase properties in kidneys, we aimed to characterize two subgroups of ZDF obese (fa/fa) rats, with more and less developed T2DM, and compare them with two controls: lean (fa/+) and Wistar. Na,K-ATPase enzyme kinetics were estimated by measuring the ATP hydrolysis in the range of NaCl and ATP levels. As Na,K-ATPase is sensitive to oxidative stress, we evaluated selected oxidative stress parameters in kidney homogenates. Our results suggest that thiol-disulfide redox balance in the renal medulla and Na,K-ATPase properties in the renal cortex differ between both controls, while observed measurements in lean (fa/+) rats showed deviation towards the values observed in ZDF (fa/fa) rats. In comparison with both controls, Na,K-ATPase enzyme activity was higher in the renal cortex of ZDF rats independent of diabetes severity. This might be a consequence of increased glucose load in tubular fluid. The increase in lipid peroxidation observed in the renal cortex of ZDF rats was not associated with Na,K-ATPase activity impairment. Regarding the differences between subgroups of ZDF animals, well-developed T2DM (glycemia higher than 10 mmol/L) was associated with a higher ability of Na,K-ATPase to utilize the ATP energy substrate.

Angiotensin System Modulations in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats and Consequences on Erythrocyte Properties; Action of MLN-4760 and Zofenopril.

Various pathologies (COVID-19 including) are associated with abnormalities in erythrocyte properties. Hypertension represents an unfavorable condition for erythrocyte quality and is the most prevalent risk factor in COVID-19 patients. ACE2 downregulation that is typical of these patients can further deteriorate cardiovascular health; however, its consequences on erythrocyte properties are not known yet. The aim was to investigate the effect of ACE2 inhibition and the potential beneficial effect of zofenopril on erythrocytes in spontaneously hypertensive rats. ACE2 inhibition induced by MLN-4760 (1 mg/kg/day for 2 weeks) led to deterioration of erythrocyte morphology and osmotic resistance, but plasma markers of oxidative stress, erythrocyte deformability, nitric oxide production and Na,K-ATPase activity were not significantly affected. Zofenopril administration (10 mg/kg/day, initiated after 4-day-lasting ACE2 inhibition) resulted in unexpected increase in angiotensin II plasma levels in both control and ACE-inhibited spontaneously hypertensive rats, but in normalization of osmotic resistance in ACE2-inhibited rats. The overall effect of zofenopril on erythrocyte qualities could be evaluated as beneficial.

Beneficial Effect of Quercetin on Erythrocyte Properties in Type 2 Diabetic Rats.

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by tissue oxidative damage and impaired microcirculation, as well as worsened erythrocyte properties. Measurements of erythrocyte deformability together with determination of nitric oxide (NO) production and osmotic resistance were used for the characterization of erythrocyte functionality in lean (control) and obese Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats of two age categories. Obese ZDF rats correspond to prediabetic (younger) and diabetic (older) animals. As antioxidants were suggested to protect erythrocytes, we also investigated the potential effect of quercetin (20 mg/kg/day for 6 weeks). Erythrocyte deformability was determined by the filtration method and NO production using DAF-2DA fluorescence. For erythrocyte osmotic resistance, we used hemolytic assay. Erythrocyte deformability and NO production deteriorated during aging-both were lower in older ZDF rats than in younger ones. Three-way ANOVA indicates improved erythrocyte deformability after quercetin treatment in older obese ZDF rats only, as it was not modified or deteriorated in both (lean and obese) younger and older lean animals. NO production by erythrocytes increased post treatment in all experimental groups. Our study indicates the potential benefit of quercetin treatment on erythrocyte properties in condition of diabetes mellitus. In addition, our results suggest potential age-dependency of quercetin effects in diabetes that deserve additional research.

Poly(ethylene glycol)-Alendronate-Coated Magnetite Nanoparticles Do Not Alter Cardiovascular Functions and Red Blood Cells' Properties in Hypertensive Rats.

In this study, magnetite nanoparticles were prepared and coated with poly(ethylene glycol) terminated by alendronate to ensure firm binding to the iron oxide surface. Magnetic nanoparticles, designated as magnetite coated with poly(ethylene glycol)-alendronate (Fe3O4@PEG-Ale), were characterized in terms of number-average (Dn) and hydrodynamic (Dh) size, ζ-potential, saturation magnetization, and composition. The effect of particles on blood pressure, vascular functions, nitric oxide (NO), and superoxide production in the tissues of spontaneously hypertensive rats, as well as the effect on red blood cell (RBC) parameters, was investigated after intravenous administration (1 mg Fe3O4/kg of body weight). Results showed that Fe3O4@PEG-Ale particles did negatively affect blood pressure, heart rate and RBC deformability, osmotic resistance and NO production. In addition, Fe3O4@PEG-Ale did not alter functions of the femoral arteries. Fe3O4@PEG-Ale induced increase in superoxide production in the kidney and spleen, but not in the left heart ventricle, aorta and liver. NO production was reduced only in the kidney. In conclusion, the results suggest that acute intravenous administration of Fe3O4@PEG-Ale did not produce negative effects on blood pressure regulation, vascular function, and RBCs in hypertensive rats.

Ultra-Small Superparamagnetic Iron-Oxide Nanoparticles Exert Different Effects on Erythrocytes in Normotensive and Hypertensive Rats.

We determined erythrocyte physiological and biochemical properties after the single and repeated administration of ultra-small superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles (USPIONs) in normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) and spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) rats. Polyethylene glycol-coated USPIONs (transmission electron microscope detected a mean size of ~30 nm and hydrodynamic size ~51 nm) were intravenously administered to rats either in one infusion at nominal dose 1 mg Fe/kg or in two infusions (administered with a difference of 24 h) at nominal dose 2 mg Fe/kg. Results showed that USPIONs did not deteriorate erythrocyte deformability, nitric oxide production, and osmotic resistance in both experimental settings. Both the single and repeated USPION administration elevated erythrocyte deformability in WKY. However, this effect was not present in SHR; deformability in USPION-treated SHR was significantly lower than in USPION-treated WKY. Nitric oxide production by erythrocytes was increased after a single USPION treatment in WKY, so it can be associated with improvement in erythrocyte deformability. Using biomagnetometry, we revealed significantly lower amounts of USPION-originated iron in erythrocytes in SHR compared with WKY. We found a much faster elimination of USPIONs from erythrocytes in hypertensive rats compared with the normotensive ones, which might be relevant for clinical practice in hypertensive patients undergoing clinical examination with the use of iron-oxide nanoparticles.

Quercetin Exerts Age-Dependent Beneficial Effects on Blood Pressure and Vascular Function, But Is Inefficient in Preventing Myocardial Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Zucker Diabetic Fatty Rats.

Background: Quercetin (QCT) was shown to exert beneficial cardiovascular effects in young healthy animals. The aim of the present study was to determine cardiovascular benefits of QCT in older, 6-month and 1-year-old Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats (model of type 2 diabetes). Methods: Lean (fa/+) and obese (fa/fa) ZDF rats of both ages were treated with QCT for 6 weeks (20 mg/kg/day). Isolated hearts were exposed to ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury (30 min/2 h). Endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation was measured in isolated aortas. Expression of selected proteins in heart tissue was detected by Western blotting. Results: QCT reduced systolic blood pressure in both lean and obese 6-month-old rats but had no effect in 1-year-old rats. Diabetes worsened vascular relaxation in both ages. QCT improved vascular relaxation in 6-month-old but worsened in 1-year-old obese rats and had no impact in lean controls of both ages. QCT did not exert cardioprotective effects against I/R injury and even worsened post-ischemic recovery in 1-year-old hearts. QCT up-regulated expression of eNOS in younger and PKCε expression in older rats but did not activate whole PI3K/Akt pathway. Conclusions: QCT might be beneficial for vascular function in diabetes type 2; however, increasing age and/or progression of diabetes may confound its vasculoprotective effects. QCT seems to be inefficient in preventing myocardial I/R injury in type 2 diabetes and/or higher age. Impaired activation of PI3K/Akt kinase pathway might be, at least in part, responsible for failing cardioprotection in these subjects.

Promotion of whole blood rheology after vitamin C supplementation: focus on red blood cells 1.

Hemorheological properties represent significant contributors in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases. As plasma vitamin C is inversely associated with blood viscosity in humans, we aimed to characterize the effect of vitamin C supplementation on hemorheology with an emphasis on erythrocyte functions. Twenty young healthy volunteers were asked to take vitamin C (1000 mg per day) for 3 weeks. We observed beneficial effect of intervention on multiple hemorheological parameters: whole blood viscosity in the range of medium to high shear rates, Casson yield stress, complex viscosity, and storage and loss moduli. As erythrocyte properties play a significant role in hemorheology, we characterized their deformability, nitric oxide production, and sodium pump activity in erythrocyte membranes. We can conclude that observed promotion in whole blood rheology may be consequence of improved erythrocyte functionality as concerns their ability to pass through narrow capillaries of the microcirculation, nitric oxide production, and sodium pump activity. Parameters reflecting oxidative stress and antioxidant status in plasma were not affected by our intervention. As improvement in hemorheology may play an important role in cardioprotection, it would be challenging to investigate the vitamin C supplementation to patients suffering from microcirculatory disturbances and worsened organ perfusion in the case of cardiovascular diseases.