Long-term trends of black carbon and particle number concentrations and their vehicle emission factors in Stockholm.

Black carbon (BC) and particle number (PN) concentrations are usually high in cities due to traffic emissions. European mitigation policies, including Euro emission standards, have been implemented to curb these emissions. We analyzed BC and PN (particle diameter Dp > 4 nm) concentrations in Stockholm spanning the years 2013-2019 (BC) and 2009-2019 (PN) measured at street canyon and rooftop sites to assess the effectiveness of the implemented policies. Combining these data with inverse dispersion modeling, we estimated BC and PN emission factors (EFBC and EFPN) for the mixed fleet, reflecting real-world driving conditions. The pollutants showed decreasing trends at both sites, but PN concentrations remained high at the canyon site considering the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations. BC concentrations declined more rapidly than PN concentrations, showing a -9.4% and -4.9% annual decrease at the canyon and -7.2% and -0.5% at the rooftop site in the years 2013-2019. The EFBC and EFPN trends showed that the mitigation strategies for reducing particulate emissions for on-road vehicles were successful over the study period. However, the introduction of biofuels in the vehicle fleet -ethanol and later rapeseed methyl ester (RME)- increased the concentrations of particles with Dp < 10 nm before the adoption of particulate filters in the exhausts. Stricter Euro emission regulations, especially with diesel particulate filters (DPF) in Euro 5, 6, and VI vehicles, led to 66% decrease in EFBC and 55% in EFPN. Real-world EFBC surpassed HBEFA (Handbook Emission Factors for Road Transport) database values by 2.4-4.8 times; however, direct comparisons between real-world and HBEFA EFPN are difficult due to differences in lower cut-off sizes and measurement techniques. Our results underscore the necessity for revising the HBEFA database, updating laboratory testing methods and portable emission measuring systems (PEMS) measurements to account for liquid condensate contributions to PN measurements.

Comparison of personal exposure to black carbon levels with fixed-site monitoring data and with dispersion modelling and the influence of activity patterns and environment.

BACKGROUND: Short-term studies of health effects from ambient air pollution usually rely on fixed site monitoring data or spatio-temporal models for exposure characterization, but the relation to personal exposure is often not known. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to explore this relation for black carbon (BC) in central Stockholm. METHODS: Families (n = 46) with an infant, one parent working and one parent on parental leave, carried battery-operated BC instruments for 7 days. Routine BC monitoring data were obtained from rural background (RB) and urban background (UB) sites. Outdoor levels of BC at home and work were estimated in 24 h periods by dispersion modelling based on hourly real-time meteorological data, and statistical meteorological data representing annual mean conditions. Global radiation, air pressure, precipitation, temperature, and wind speed data were obtained from the UB station. All families lived in the city centre, within 4 km of the UB station. RESULTS: The average level of 24 h personal BC was 425 (s.d. 181) ng/m3 for parents on leave, and 394 (s.d. 143) ng/m3 for working parents. The corresponding fixed-site monitoring observations were 148 (s.d. 139) at RB and 317 (s.d. 149) ng/m3 at UB. Modelled BC levels at home and at work were 493 (s.d. 228) and 331 (s.d. 173) ng/m3, respectively. UB, RB and air pressure explained only 21% of personal 24 h BC variability for parents on leave and 25% for working parents. Modelled home BC and observed air pressure explained 23% of personal BC, and adding modelled BC at work increased the explanation to 34% for the working parents. IMPACT: Short-term studies of health effects from ambient air pollution usually rely on fixed site monitoring data or spatio-temporal models for exposure characterization, but the relation to actual personal exposure is often not known. In this study we showed that both routine monitoring and modelled data explained less than 35% of variability in personal black carbon exposure. Hence, short-term health effects studies based on fixed site monitoring or spatio-temporal modelling are likely to be underpowered and subject to bias.

Language-Specific Constraints on Conversation: Evidence from Danish and Norwegian.

Establishing and maintaining mutual understanding in everyday conversations is crucial. To do so, people employ a variety of conversational devices, such as backchannels, repair, and linguistic entrainment. Here, we explore whether the use of conversational devices might be influenced by cross-linguistic differences in the speakers' native language, comparing two matched languages-Danish and Norwegian-differing primarily in their sound structure, with Danish being more opaque, that is, less acoustically distinguished. Across systematically manipulated conversational contexts, we find that processes supporting mutual understanding in conversations vary with external constraints: across different contexts and, crucially, across languages. In accord with our predictions, linguistic entrainment was overall higher in Danish than in Norwegian, while backchannels and repairs presented a more nuanced pattern. These findings are compatible with the hypothesis that native speakers of Danish may compensate for its opaque sound structure by adopting a top-down strategy of building more conversational redundancy through entrainment, which also might reduce the need for repairs. These results suggest that linguistic differences might be met by systematic changes in language processing and use. This paves the way for further cross-linguistic investigations and critical assessment of the interplay between cultural and linguistic factors on the one hand and conversational dynamics on the other.

Non-Destructive Evaluation of Thermal Aging in EPDM Rubber Using Electromagnetic Techniques.

This study investigates the use of eddy-current technology and impedance spectroscopy in sensing the change in rubber properties after it is exposed to accelerated thermal aging. The thermal aging process, by application of temperature and pressure over time, of ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) rubbers containing both carbon black (CB) and graphene are investigated. Both eddy-current sensing and electrical impedance measurement techniques were used for electromagnetic analysis. Both methods measure the in- and out-of-phase responses as a function of excitation frequency at room temperature. The measurements were performed before and after the aging process. The electrical percolation threshold was detected in the rubber samples by varying the CB content from 0 to 40 wt%. In the rubber sample containing 30 wt% CB, 0-5 wt% of the CB was replaced with graphene flakes. The substitution of graphene for CB in the EPDM rubber formulation provided an enhanced eddy-current and electrical impedance response. The findings demonstrate the feasibility of employing electromagnetic analysis techniques to investigate the extent of aging.

A Face to Love or Trust.

This article demonstrates the use of a card sorting game that is suitable for field studies. Subjective judgment in face perception is studied by sorting faces based on attractiveness or trustworthiness. Are beautiful people also trustworthy, or does beauty come with a price? Our first hypothesis is that the two conditions like and trust are different. We investigate this using a sorting game, where participants are asked to sort 27 semi-artificial portraits according to how much they like or trust the faces. The faces are in two different conditions: prototypes and individualized prototypes. Our participants were consistent in their judgments. Participants claim to have reacted to small inconsistencies in facial expressions in the trust condition, and we investigate the relation to anatomical features using a model and Correspondence Analysis.

A yearlong monitoring campaign of polycyclic aromatic compounds and other air pollutants at three sites in Sweden: Source identification, in vitro toxicity and human health risk assessment.

Air pollution is a complex mixture of gases and particulate matter (PM) with local and non-local emission sources, resulting in spatiotemporal variability in concentrations and composition, and thus associated health risks. To study this in the greater Stockholm area, a yearlong monitoring campaign with in situ measurements of PM10, PM1, black carbon, NOx, O3, and PM10-sampling was performed. The locations included an Urban and a Rural background site and a Highway site. Chemical analysis of PM10 was performed to quantify monthly levels of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs), which together with other air pollution data were used for source apportionment and health risk assessment. Organic extracts from PM10 were tested for oxidative potential in human bronchial epithelial cells. Strong seasonal patterns were found for most air pollutants including PACs, with higher levels during the winter months than summer e.g., highest levels of PM10 were detected in March at the Highway site (33.2 µg/m3) and lowest in May at the Rural site (3.6 µg/m3). In general, air pollutant levels at the sites were in the order Highway > Urban > Rural. Multivariate analysis identified several polar PACs, including 6H-Benzo[cd]pyren-6-one, as possible discriminatory markers for these sites. The main sources of particulate pollution for all sites were vehicle exhaust and biomass burning emissions, although diesel exhaust was an important source at the Highway site. In vitro results agreed with air pollutant levels, with higher oxidative potential from the winter samples. Estimated lung cancer cases were in the order PM10 > NO2 > PACs for all sites, and with less evident seasonal differences than in vitro results. In conclusion, our study presents novel seasonal data for many PACs together with air pollutants more traditionally included in air quality monitoring. Moreover, seasonal differences in air pollutant levels correlated with differences in toxicity in vitro.

Toxicity and health effects of ultrafine particles: Towards an understanding of the relative impacts of different transport modes.

Exposure to particulate matter (PM) has been associated with a wide range of adverse health effects, but it is still unclear how particles from various transport modes differ in terms of toxicity and associations with different human health outcomes. This literature review aims to summarize toxicological and epidemiological studies of the effect of ultrafine particles (UFPs), also called nanoparticles (NPs, <100 nm), from different transport modes with a focus on vehicle exhaust (particularly comparing diesel and biodiesel) and non-exhaust as well as particles from shipping (harbor), aviation (airport) and rail (mainly subway/underground). The review includes both particles collected in laboratory tests and the field (intense traffic environments or collected close to harbor, airport, and in subway). In addition, epidemiological studies on UFPs are reviewed with special attention to studies aimed at distinguishing the effects of different transport modes. Results from toxicological studies indicate that both fossil and biodiesel NPs show toxic effects. Several in vivo studies show that inhalation of NPs collected in traffic environments not only impacts the lung, but also triggers cardiovascular effects as well as negative impacts on the brain, although few studies compared NPs from different sources. Few studies were found on aviation (airport) NPs, but the available results suggest similar toxic effects as traffic-related particles. There is still little data related to the toxic effects linked to several sources (shipping, road and tire wear, subway NPs), but in vitro results highlighted the role of metals in the toxicity of subway and brake wear particles. Finally, the epidemiological studies emphasized the current limited knowledge of the health impacts of source-specific UFPs related to different transport modes. This review discusses the necessity of future research for a better understanding of the relative potencies of NPs from different transport modes and their use in health risk assessment.

Sex differences in patients' recovery following an acute Achilles tendon rupture - a large cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: The incidence of Achilles tendon ruptures (ATR) has increased over the past few decades. Treatment may be individualised based upon multiple factors including age, pre-injury activity level and the separation of the ruptured tendon ends. Several studies indicate that women may have a poorer self-reported and clinical outcome compared with men, but the number of women in these studies is often small due to the different incidence of ATR between the genders. AIMS: The primary aim of this study was to evaluate whether there is a difference in self-reported outcome after an acute ATR between women and men at one to five years following injury. The second aim was to compare the outcome between the surgically and non-surgically treated patients. METHODS: Data were obtained from the medical charts of patients treated for an acute ATR between 1 and 2015 and 31 December 2020 at Sahlgrenska University Hospital/Mölndal. The Achilles tendon total rupture score (ATRS) and additional questions relating to treatment and recovery were determined. A multiple regression analysis was performed to isolate the impact of sex when comparing the patient-reported outcome between women and men. RESULTS: A total of 856 patients were included of which 66% participated prospectively. Sex, BMI and age were found to be significant factors influencing the total ATRS score. Female gender resulted in a lower ATRS, 7.8 points (CI = 3.3 to 12.3), than male gender. It was found that treatment did not significantly predict the results of the ATRS. CONCLUSION: To our knowledge, this is the first report with a larger number of women included showing that female sex predicts inferior self-reported results after an acute ATR.

Atomic Force Manipulation of Single Magnetic Nanoparticles for Spin-Based Electronics.

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are instrumental for fabrication of tailored nanomagnetic structures, especially where top-down lithographic patterning is not feasible. Here, we demonstrate precise and controllable manipulation of individual magnetite MNPs using the tip of an atomic force microscope. We verify our approach by placing a single MNP with a diameter of 50 nm on top of a 100 nm Hall bar fabricated in a quasi-two-dimensional electron gas (q2DEG) at the oxide interface between LaAlO3 and SrTiO3 (LAO/STO). A hysteresis loop due to the magnetic hysteresis properties of the magnetite MNPs was observed in the Hall resistance. Further, the effective coercivity of the Hall resistance hysteresis loop could be changed upon field cooling at different angles of the cooling field with respect to the measuring field. The effect is associated with the alignment of the MNP magnetic moment along the easy axis closest to the external field direction across the Verwey transition in magnetite. Our results can facilitate experimental realization of magnetic proximity devices using single MNPs and two-dimensional materials for spin-based nanoelectronics.

Is Reduced Visual Processing the Price of Language?

We suggest a later timeline for full language capabilities in Homo sapiens, placing the emergence of language over 200,000 years after the emergence of our species. The late Paleolithic period saw several significant changes. Homo sapiens became more gracile and gradually lost significant brain volumes. Detailed realistic cave paintings disappeared completely, and iconic/symbolic ones appeared at other sites. This may indicate a shift in perceptual abilities, away from an accurate perception of the present. Language in modern humans interact with vision. One example is the McGurk effect. Studies show that artistic abilities may improve when language-related brain areas are damaged or temporarily knocked out. Language relies on many pre-existing non-linguistic functions. We suggest that an overwhelming flow of perceptual information, vision, in particular, was an obstacle to language, as is sometimes implied in autism with relative language impairment. We systematically review the recent research literature investigating the relationship between language and perception. We see homologues of language-relevant brain functions predating language. Recent findings show brain lateralization for communicative gestures in other primates without language, supporting the idea that a language-ready brain may be overwhelmed by raw perception, thus blocking overt language from evolving. We find support in converging evidence for a change in neural organization away from raw perception, thus pushing the emergence of language closer in time. A recent origin of language makes it possible to investigate the genetic origins of language.

High magnetoelectric coupling of Metglas and P(VDF-TrFE) laminates.

Magnetoelectric (magnetic/piezoelectric) heterostructures bring new functionalities to develop novel transducer devices such as (wireless) sensors or energy harvesters and thus have been attracting research interest in the last years. We have studied the magnetoelectric coupling between Metglas films (2826 MB) and poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) (P(VDF-TrFE)) in a laminate structure. The metallic Metglas film itself served as bottom electrode and as top electrode we used an electrically conductive polymer, poly(3,4-ethylene-dioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS). Besides a direct electrical wiring via a graphite ink, a novel contactless readout method is presented using a capacitive coupling between the PEDOT:PSS layer and an electrode not in contact with the PEDOT:PSS layer. From the experimental result we determined a magnetoelectric coupling of 1445 V/(cm·Oe) at the magnetoelastic resonance of the structure, which is among the highest reported values for laminate structures of a magnetostrictive and a piezoelectric polymer layer. With the noncontact readout method, a magnetoelectric coupling of about 950 V/(cm·Oe) could be achieved, which surpasses previously reported values for the case of direct sample contacting. 2D laser Doppler vibrometer measurements in combination with FE simulations were applied to reveal the complex vibration pattern resulting in the strong resonant response.

The process-disruption hypothesis: how spelling and typing skill affects written composition process and product.

This study investigates the possibility that lack of fluency in spelling and/or typing disrupts writing processes in such a way as to cause damage to the substance (content and structure) of the resulting text. 101 children (mean age 11 years 10 months), writing in a relatively shallow orthography (Norwegian), composed argumentative essays using a simple text editor that provided accurate timing for each keystroke. Production fluency was assessed in terms of both within-word and word-initial interkey intervals and pause counts. We also assessed the substantive quality of completed texts. Students also performed tasks in which we recorded time to pressing keyboard keys in response to spoken letter names (a keyboard knowledge measure), response time and interkey intervals when spelling single, spoken words (spelling fluency), and interkey intervals when typing a simple sentence from memory (transcription fluency). Analysis by piecewise structural equation modelling gave clear evidence that all three of these measures predict fluency when composing full text. Students with longer mid-word interkey intervals when composing full text tended to produce texts with slightly weaker theme development. However, we found no other effects of composition fluency measures on measures of the substantive quality of the completed text. Our findings did not, therefore, provide support for the process-disruption hypothesis, at least in the context of upper-primary students writing in a shallow orthography.

Overall health impacts of a potential increase in cycle commuting in Stockholm, Sweden.

AIMS: To estimate the overall health impact of transferring commuting trips from car to bicycle. METHODS: In this study registry information on the location of home and work for residents in Stockholm County was used to obtain the shortest travel route on a network of bicycle paths and roads. Current modes of travel to work were based on travel survey data. The relation between duration of cycling and distance cycled was established as a basis for selecting the number of individuals that normally would drive a car to work, but have a distance to work that they could bicycle within 30 minutes. The change in traffic flows was estimated by a transport model (LuTrans) and effects on road traffic injuries and fatalities were estimated by using national hospital injury data. Effects on air pollution concentrations were modelled using dispersion models. RESULTS: Within the scenario, 111,000 commuters would shift from car to bicycle. On average the increased physical activity reduced the one-year mortality risk by 12% among the additional bicyclists. Including the number of years lost due to morbidity, the total number of disability adjusted life-years gained was 696. The amount of disability adjusted life-years gained in the general population due to reduced air pollution exposure was 471. The number of disability adjusted life-years lost by traffic injuries was 176. Also including air pollution effects among bicyclists, the net benefit was 939 disability adjusted life-years per year. CONCLUSIONS: Large health benefits were estimated by transferring commuting by car to bicycle.

Remote Sensing of the Nano-Rheological Properties of Soft Materials Using Magnetic Nanoparticles and Magnetic AC Susceptometry.

We have developed a nano-rheological characterization tool to extract the frequency- and scale-dependent rheological properties of soft materials during oral processing. Taking advantage of AC susceptometry, the dynamic magnetization of magnetic nanoparticles blended in the matrix material is measured. The magnetic AC susceptibility spectra of the particles are affected by the viscosity and mechanical modulus of the matrix material and provide the rheological properties of the matrix. Commercially available iron-oxide magnetic nanoparticles with 80 and 100 nm particle sizes are used as tracers in the frequency range of 1 Hz-10 kHz. The AC susceptibility is measured using two differentially connected coils, and the effects of the sample temperature and distance with respect to the detection coils are investigated. The developed measurement setup shows the feasibility of remote nano-rheological measurements up to 2 cm from the coil system, which can be used to, e.g., monitor the texture of matrix materials during oral processing.

Long-term exposure to particulate air pollution and black carbon in relation to natural and cause-specific mortality: a multicohort study in Sweden.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate concentration-response relationships for particulate matter (PM) and black carbon (BC) in relation to mortality in cohorts from three Swedish cities with comparatively low pollutant levels. SETTING: Cohorts from Gothenburg, Stockholm and Umeå, Sweden. DESIGN: High-resolution dispersion models were used to estimate annual mean concentrations of PM with aerodynamic diameter ≤10 µm (PM10) and ≤2.5 µm (PM2.5), and BC, at individual addresses during each year of follow-up, 1990-2011. Moving averages were calculated for the time windows 1-5 years (lag1-5) and 6-10 years (lag6-10) preceding the outcome. Cause-specific mortality data were obtained from the national cause of death registry. Cohort-specific HRs were estimated using Cox regression models and then meta-analysed including a random effect of cohort. PARTICIPANTS: During the study period, 7 340 cases of natural mortality, 2 755 cases of cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality and 817 cases of respiratory and lung cancer mortality were observed among in total 68 679 individuals and 689 813 person-years of follow-up. RESULTS: Both PM10 (range: 6.3-41.9 µg/m3) and BC (range: 0.2-6.8 µg/m3) were associated with natural mortality showing 17% (95% CI 6% to 31%) and 9% (95% CI 0% to 18%) increased risks per 10 µg/m3 and 1 µg/m3 of lag1-5 exposure, respectively. For PM2.5 (range: 4.0-22.4 µg/m3), the estimated increase was 13% per 5 µg/m3, but less precise (95% CI -9% to 40%). Estimates for CVD mortality appeared higher for both PM10 and PM2.5. No association was observed with respiratory mortality. CONCLUSION: The results support an effect of long-term air pollution on natural mortality and mortality in CVD with high relative risks also at low exposure levels. These findings are relevant for future decisions concerning air quality policies.

Long-term trends in nitrogen oxides concentrations and on-road vehicle emission factors in Copenhagen, London and Stockholm.

Road transport is the main anthropogenic source of NOx in Europe, affecting human health and ecosystems. Thus, mitigation policies have been implemented to reduce on-road vehicle emissions, particularly through the Euro standard limits. To evaluate the effectiveness of these policies, we calculated NO2 and NOx concentration trends using air quality and meteorological measurements conducted in three European cities over 26 years. These data were also employed to estimate the trends in NOx emission factors (EFNOx, based on inverse dispersion modeling) and NO2:NOx emission ratios for the vehicle fleets under real-world driving conditions. In the period 1998-2017, Copenhagen and Stockholm showed large reductions in both the urban background NOx concentrations (-2.1 and -2.6% yr-1, respectively) and EFNOx at curbside sites (68 and 43%, respectively), proving the success of the Euro standards in diminishing NOx emissions. London presented a modest decrease in urban background NOx concentrations (-1.3% yr-1), while EFNOx remained rather constant at the curbside site (Marylebone Road) due to the increase in public bus traffic. NO2 primary emissions -that are not regulated- increased until 2008-2010, which also reflected in the ambient concentrations. This increase was associated with a strong dieselization process and the introduction of new after-treatment technologies that targeted the emission reduction of other species (e.g., greenhouse gases or particulate matter). Thus, while regulations on ambient concentrations of specific species have positive effects on human health, the overall outcomes should be considered before widely adopting them. Emission inventories for the on-road transportation sector should include EFNOx derived from real-world measurements, particularly in urban settings.

Near-Source Risk Functions for Particulate Matter Are Critical When Assessing the Health Benefits of Local Abatement Strategies.

When mortality or other health outcomes attributable to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) are estimated, the same exposure-response function (ERF) is usually assumed regardless of the source and composition of the particles, and independently of the spatial resolution applied in the exposure model. While several recent publications indicate that ERFs based on exposure models resolving within-city gradients are steeper per concentration unit (µgm-3), the ERF for PM2.5 recommended by the World Health Organization does not reflect this observation and is heavily influenced by studies based on between-city exposure estimates. We evaluated the potential health benefits of three air pollution abatement strategies: electrification of light vehicles, reduced use of studded tires, and introduction of congestion charges in Stockholm and Gothenburg, using different ERFs. We demonstrated that using a single ERF for PM2.5 likely results in an underestimation of the effect of local measures and may be misleading when evaluating abatement strategies. We also suggest applying ERFs that distinguish between near-source and regional contributions of exposure to PM2.5. If separate ERFs are applied for near-source and regional PM2.5, congestion charges as well as a reduction of studded tire use are estimated to be associated with a significant reduction in the mortality burden in both Gothenburg and Stockholm. In some scenarios the number of premature deaths is more than 10 times higher using separate ERFs in comparison to using a single ERF irrespective of sources as recommended by the WHO. For electrification, the net change in attributable deaths is small or within the uncertainty range depending on the choice of ERF.

The Superior Visual Perception Hypothesis: Neuroaesthetics of Cave Art.

Cave Art in the Upper Paleolithic presents a boost of creativity and visual thinking. What can explain these savant-like paintings? The normal brain function in modern man rarely supports the creation of highly detailed paintings, particularly the convincing representation of animal movement, without extensive training and access to modern technology. Differences in neuro-signaling and brain anatomy between modern and archaic Homo sapiens could also cause differences in perception. The brain of archaic Homo sapiens could perceive raw detailed information without using pre-established top-down concepts, as opposed to the common understanding of the normal modern non-savant brain driven by top-down control. Some ancient genes preserved in modern humans may be expressed in rare disorders. Researchers have compared Cave Art with art made by people with autism spectrum disorder. We propose that archaic primary consciousness, as opposed to modern secondary consciousness, included a savant-like perception with a superior richness of details compared to modern man. Modern people with high frequencies of Neanderthal genes, have notable anatomical features such as increased skull width in the occipital and parietal visual areas. We hypothesize that the anatomical differences are functional and may allow a different path to visual perception.

Whither Magnetic Hyperthermia? A Tentative Roadmap.

The scientific community has made great efforts in advancing magnetic hyperthermia for the last two decades after going through a sizeable research lapse from its establishment. All the progress made in various topics ranging from nanoparticle synthesis to biocompatibilization and in vivo testing have been seeking to push the forefront towards some new clinical trials. As many, they did not go at the expected pace. Today, fruitful international cooperation and the wisdom gain after a careful analysis of the lessons learned from seminal clinical trials allow us to have a future with better guarantees for a more definitive takeoff of this genuine nanotherapy against cancer. Deliberately giving prominence to a number of critical aspects, this opinion review offers a blend of state-of-the-art hints and glimpses into the future of the therapy, considering the expected evolution of science and technology behind magnetic hyperthermia.

Regulating and Cultural Ecosystem Services of Urban Green Infrastructure in the Nordic Countries: A Systematic Review.

In the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden), the Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI) has been traditionally targeted at reducing flood risk. However, other Ecosystem Services (ES) became increasingly relevant in response to the challenges of urbanization and climate change. In total, 90 scientific articles addressing ES considered crucial contributions to the quality of life in cities are reviewed. These are classified as (1) regulating ES that minimize hazards such as heat, floods, air pollution and noise, and (2) cultural ES that promote well-being and health. We conclude that the planning and design of UGI should balance both the provision of ES and their side effects and disservices, aspects that seem to have been only marginally investigated. Climate-sensitive planning practices are critical to guarantee that seasonal climate variability is accounted for at high-latitude regions. Nevertheless, diverging and seemingly inconsistent findings, together with gaps in the understanding of long-term effects, create obstacles for practitioners. Additionally, the limited involvement of end users points to a need of better engagement and communication, which in overall call for more collaborative research. Close relationships and interactions among different ES provided by urban greenery were found, yet few studies attempted an integrated evaluation. We argue that promoting interdisciplinary studies is fundamental to attain a holistic understanding of how plant traits affect the resulting ES; of the synergies between biophysical, physiological and psychological processes; and of the potential disservices of UGI, specifically in Nordic cities.