Exposure of Acinetobacter baylyi ADP1 to the biocide chlorhexidine leads to acquired resistance to the biocide itself and to oxidants.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to determine the effect of exposure to sublethal concentrations of chlorhexidine on oxidative stress protection by Acinetobacter baylyi ADP1. METHODS: ADP1 cultures were exposed to sublethal concentrations of chlorhexidine prior to being challenged with lethal concentrations of chlorhexidine itself and by oxidants. Oxidant-sensitive dyes and a flow cytometer were used to measure the formation of reactive oxygen species. The role of efflux pumps in chlorhexidine resistance was investigated using a specific inhibitor. RESULTS: Exposure of ADP1 to low concentrations of chlorhexidine induced adaptive and cross-protective responses to chlorhexidine and oxidants (H(2)O(2) and a superoxide anion generator), respectively. Chlorhexidine treatment of ADP1 resulted in the formation of H(2)O(2) and superoxide anions that are probably responsible for the cross-protection against oxidants. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure of ADP1 to sublethal concentrations of chlorhexidine confers inducible resistance to lethal concentrations of chlorhexidine itself and to oxidants. An important link was demonstrated between exposure to a biocide and the gaining of resistance to both the biocide and oxidative stress.

Influence of fatty acid precursors, including food preservatives, on the growth and fatty acid composition of Listeria monocytogenes at 37 and 10degreesC.

Listeria monocytogenes is a food-borne pathogen that grows at refrigeration temperatures and increases its content of anteiso-C(15:0) fatty acid, which is believed to be a homeoviscous adaptation to ensure membrane fluidity, at these temperatures. As a possible novel approach for control of the growth of the organism, the influences of various fatty acid precursors, including branched-chain amino acids and branched- and straight-chain carboxylic acids, some of which are also well-established food preservatives, on the growth and fatty acid composition of the organism at 37 degrees C and 10 degrees C were studied in order to investigate whether the organism could be made to synthesize fatty acids that would result in impaired growth at low temperatures. The results indicate that the fatty acid composition of L. monocytogenes could be modulated by the feeding of branched-chain amino acid, C(4), C(5), and C(6) branched-chain carboxylic acid, and C(3) and C(4) straight-chain carboxylic acid fatty acid precursors, but the growth-inhibitory effects of several preservatives were independent of effects on fatty acid composition, which were minor in the case of preservatives metabolized via acetyl coenzyme A. The ability of a precursor to modify fatty acid composition was probably a reflection of the substrate specificities of the first enzyme, FabH, in the condensation of primers of fatty acid biosynthesis with malonyl acyl carrier protein.

Role of sigma B factor in the alkaline tolerance response of Listeria monocytogenes 10403S and cross-protection against subsequent ethanol and osmotic stress.

Many of the considerable abilities of Listeria monocytogenes to persist and grow in a wide range of adverse environmental conditions are thought to be at least partly under the control of the alternative sigma factor (sigmaB), encoded by the sigB gene. However, little is known about the role of this master regulon in the impressive ability of Listeria to persist and grow under conditions of alkaline pH. In this study, Northern blot analysis of parent Listeria mRNA revealed that alkali adaptation (pH 9.5 for 1 h) significantly increased the expression of sigB-derived mRNA. The study included a comparison of the relative survival of mid-exponential populations of adapted and nonadapted parent type (sigmaB expressing) and mutant (not sigmaB expressing, deltasigB) Listeria strains during subsequent alkaline (pH 12.0), osmotic (25% NaCl, wt/vol), or ethanol (16.5%) stress. Alkali-adapted parent strains were more resistant to pH 12.0 than were adapted deltasigB type strains, but both alkali-adapted parent and deltasigB strains were more resistant to pH 12.0 than were nonadapted strains. Alkali-adapted parent strains were more resistant to osmotic stress than were adapted deltasigB type strains. No significant differences in viability were observed between alkali-adapted parent and deltasigB strains after ethanol stress, suggesting that cross-protection against osmotic stress is mediated by sigmaB whereas cross-protection against ethanol is sigmaB independent. Overall, alkali-induced cross-protection against osmotic and ethanol challenges may have serious implications for food safety and human health because such stress conditions are routinely used as part of food preservation and surface cleaning processes.

Exogenous isoleucine and fatty acid shortening ensure the high content of anteiso-C15:0 fatty acid required for low-temperature growth of Listeria monocytogenes.

Previous studies have demonstrated that the branched-chain fatty acid anteiso-C15:0 plays a critical role in the growth of Listeria monocytogenes at low temperatures by ensuring sufficient membrane fluidity. Studies utilizing a chemically defined minimal medium revealed that the anteiso fatty acid precursor isoleucine largely determined the fatty acid profile and fatty acid response of the organism to lowered growth temperature. When isoleucine was sufficient, the fatty acid profile was very uniform, with anteiso fatty acids comprising up to 95% of total fatty acid, and the major fatty acid adjustment to low temperature was fatty acid chain shortening, which resulted in an increase of anteiso-C15:0 solely at the expense of anteiso-C17:0. When isoleucine was not supplied, the fatty acid profile became more complex and was readily modified by leucine, which resulted in a significant increase of corresponding iso fatty acids and an inability to grow at 10 degrees C. Under this condition, the increase of anteiso-C15:0 at low temperature resulted from the combined effect of increasing the anteiso:iso ratio and chain shortening. A branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase-defective strain largely lost the ability to increase the anteiso:iso ratio. Cerulenin, an inhibitor of beta-ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein synthase (FabF), induced a similar fatty acid chain shortening as low temperature did. We propose that the anteiso precursor preferences of enzymes in the branched-chain fatty acid biosynthesis pathway ensure a high production of anteiso fatty acids, and cold-regulated chain shortening results in a further increase of anteiso-C15:0 at the expense of anteiso-C17:0.