Body Mass Index and Waist Circumference as Predictors of Above-Average Increased Cardiovascular Risk Assessed by the SCORE2 and SCORE2-OP Calculators and the Proposition of New Optimal Cut-Off Values: Cross-Sectional Single-Center Study.

Background: Obesity has been perceived as one of the important cardiovascular risk factors, but SCORE2 calculators used in clinical practice do not include the most popular parameters assessed for body composition: body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC). The objective of this research was to determine which of the aforementioned variables is a more reliable predictor of an above-average increased cardiovascular risk for gender and age (ICVR). Methods: Data from 2061 patients were analyzed; the 10-year risk of cardiovascular events was assessed by SCORE2 tables, and the correlations with BMI and WC were analyzed. Results: BMI and WC independently predicted ICVR (OR 1.10-1.27). In males, BMI was a more accurate predictor (AUC = 0.816); however, in females, it was WC (AUC = 0.739). A novel threshold for BMI (27.6 kg/m2) was suggested, which increases the risk of cardiovascular disease by 3.3-5.3 times depending on gender; the same holds true for WC (93 cm in women and 99 cm in men; 3.8-4.8-fold higher risk). Conclusions: Despite their heterogeneity, BMI and WC are effective cardiovascular risk predictors, especially BMI for males and WC for females; therefore, more research is needed to include them in future models for predicting unfavorable cardiometabolic events.

Performance Evaluation of a Novel Non-Invasive Test for the Detection of Advanced Liver Fibrosis in Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Fatty Liver Disease.

Metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) may progress to advanced liver fibrosis (ALF). We evaluated the diagnostic accuracy of a novel Liver Fibrosis Risk Index (LFRI) in MAFLD subjects using transient elastography (TE) as the reference method for liver fibrosis measurement and then the diagnostic performance of a new two-step non-invasive algorithm for the detection of ALF risk in MAFLD, using Fibrosis-4 (FIB-4) followed by LFRI and comparing it to the reference algorithm based on FIB-4 and TE. We conducted a prospective study on 104 MAFLD European adult subjects. All consenting subjects underwent TE and measurements of FIB-4 and LFRI. For FIB-4 and TE, validated cut-offs were used. An ROC analysis showed that LFRI diagnosed severe fibrosis with moderate accuracy in MAFLD subjects with a negative predictive value above 90%. Using the new algorithm with LFRI thresholds recommended by the manufacturer, the number of subjects classified into ALF risk groups (low, intermediate, or high) differed significantly when compared with the reference algorithm (p = 0.001), with moderate agreement between them (weighted kappa (95% CI) = 0.59 (0.41-0.77)). To improve the performance of the LFRI-based algorithm, we modified cut-off points based on ROC curves obtained by dividing the study population according to the reference algorithm and observed no difference between algorithms (p = 0.054) in categorizing ALF risk, with a slight increase in the total agreement (weighted kappa (95% CI) = 0.63 (0.44-0.82)). Our findings suggest that using the novel LFRI as a second-line test may represent a potential alternative for liver fibrosis risk stratification in MAFLD patients; however, modified cut-offs are needed to optimize its performance.

Prevalence and Crucial Parameters in Diabesity-Related Liver Fibrosis: A Preliminary Study.

Diabetes and obesity have been recognized as confirmed risk factors for the occurrence of liver fibrosis. Despite the long-standing acknowledgment of "diabesity", the simultaneous existence of diabetes and obesity, scholarly literature has shown limited attention to this topic. The aim of this pilot study was to assess the prevalence of liver fibrosis among individuals with diabetes (specifically those who are obese) in order to identify the key factors associated with hepatofibrosis and determine the most important associations and differences between patients with and without liver fibrosis. The research included a total of 164 participants (48.17% had comorbid obesity). Liver elastography (Fibroscan) was performed on these individuals in addition to laboratory tests. Liver fibrosis was found in 34.76% of type 2 diabetes patients; male gender almost doubled the risk of hepatofibrosis (RR 1.81) and diabesity nearly tripled this risk (RR 2.81; however, in degree III of obesity, the risk was elevated to 3.65 times higher). Anisocytosis, thrombocytopenia, or elevated liver enzymes raised the incidence of liver fibrosis by 1.78 to 2.47 times. In these individuals, liver stiffness was negatively correlated with MCV, platelet count, and albumin concentration; GGTP activity and HbA1c percentage were positively correlated. The regression analysis results suggest that the concentration of albumin and the activity of GGTP are likely to have a substantial influence on the future management of liver fibrosis in patients with diabesity. The findings of this study can serve as the basis for subsequent investigations and actions focused on identifying potential therapeutic and diagnostic avenues.

The Level of Intima-Media Thickness in Patients with Metabolic Syndrome in Poland Depending on the Prevalence of Type 2 Diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Metabolic syndrome (MetS), increasingly diagnosed among the Polish population, is a combination of factors that are associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases. Intima-media thickness (IMT) of the common carotid artery has been suggested as, simply, a non-invasive and reproducible marker of the early stages of the atherosclerotic process. The carotid IMT can also be a strong predictor of future cerebral and cardiovascular events. The aim of our study was to evaluate atherosclerotic lesions in carotid vessels in patients with MetS depending on the presence of DMt2 and to assess which demographic factors affect the level of IMT. The study involved 335 subjects diagnosed with MetS, including 211 females (65%) and 124 males (37%) aged 37-82. The diagnosis of MetS was made on the basis of the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) criteria. The patients were divided into two subgroups: with DMt2 and without DMt2. The value of IMT depended on gender, education, and smoking status. We noticed that patients with DMt2 had the highest measurement of IMT compared with other groups (1.01 vs. 0.98). Additionally, a statistically significant difference between the subgroup with DMt2 and those without DMt2 was found (1.01 vs. 0.92; p < 0.005). Ultrasound assessment of the carotid IMT should be used more often in the diagnosis and monitoring of high cardiovascular risk and early progression of atherosclerosis, especially in patients with MetS with current DMt2.

Assessment of Metabolic Parameters in Female Triathletes with Hashimoto's Thyroiditis in Poland.

Background: Hypothyroidism is a complex disorder characterized by an increase in body weight. About 15-30% of hypothyroid patients are reported to be overweight. The triathlon is an endurance combination sport that comprises a sequential swim, cycle, and run. Triathletes must withstand high training loads with various combinations of intensity and volume. Adequate body structure, the ratio of fat and muscle tissue, and adequate hydration play a huge role. The aim of our study was to show the potential differences in metabolic parameters assessed by medical Body Composition Analyzer before the initiation of treatment with L-thyroxine and after 3 and 6 months of treatment in females who practiced triathlon and who were newly diagnosed with Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Methods: The study group included 32 females practicing triathlon. They were recruited for 10 months from March to December 2021. Analysis of anthropometric measurements was performed using a seca device mBCA 515 medical Body Composition Analyzer. Results: We observed significant differences in FM and VAT before and after L-thyroxine treatment. We also noticed lower BMI levels after treatment, along with significant differences in thyroid function tests (TSH and fT4) carried out during the recruitment period and after 3 and 6 months of treatment. Conclusion: Due to their higher daily energy consumption, further research is needed into the treatment of Hashimoto's thyroiditis in athletes who practice triathlon. Frequent bioelectrical impedance analysis of body composition during treatment can be very helpful.

The role of vitamin D in women with Hashimoto's thyroiditis.

INTRODUCTION: Autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD), including Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT), are the most common organ specific autoimmune disorders. Vitamin D (vit-D) is a steroid molecule, mainly produced in the skin, which regulates the expression of many genes. The vitamin D receptor (VDR) is found in most tissues and cells in the body. Many studies suggests that vit-D deficiency, which is common worldwide, could also play an important role in autoimmune diseases, including HT. The aim of our study was to show the potential differences in vit-D levels between healthy women and individuals with hypothyroidism and HT. Additionally, we assessed the correlation between vit-D concentration and the level of TSH and anti-thyroid antibodies in females diagnosed with HT. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study group included 370 subjects. The group was divided into 3 subgroups: (125 - healthy individuals, 111 - hypothyreosis, 134 - HT). Anthropometric measurements including height and weight were obtained in all participants. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as body weight (in kilograms) divided by the square of body height (in metres). The measurement of the thyroid gland was performed using an ultrasound scan with a 10-MHz linear probe by one endocrinologist (Vivid S60N). RESULTS: We noticed that a lower level of vit-D was connected with a higher level of TSH in each subgroup. There was also strong, negative correlation between TSH and vit-D levels in all the study groups. Moreover, there was a weak, negative correlation between antithyroid peroxidase antibody (anti-TPO) and antithyroglobulin antibody (anti-TG) and vit-D levels in females with HT regardless of vit-D status: < 20 ng/mL, 20-30 ng/mL, and > 30 ng/mL. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, the current study is the first in Poland to compare vit-D status in healthy patients and patients with hypothyroidism, taking into account the level of antibodies (anti-TPO and anti-TG). The results of our study suggest that vit-D supplementation in patients with hypothyroidism, especially in the course of AITD, although determining its optimal, safe dose requires further research.

Basics of prevention and management of iodine-based contrast media-induced thyroid dysfunction - position paper by the Polish Society of Endocrinology.

Medical practice involves a high number of radiological examinations using iodinated contrast media (ICM). Therefore, it is crucial for doctors of different specialties to be aware of possible adverse effects associated with ICM use. The most common and well characterized adverse effect is contrast-induced nephropathy, whereas thyroidal adverse reactions remain a diagnostic and therapeutic dilemma. ICM-induced thyroid dysfunction represents a highly heterogenous group of thyroid disorders. Due to supraphysiological iodine concentration, ICM can induce both hyper- and hypothyroidism. In most cases, the ICM-induced thyroid dysfunction is oligo- or asymptomatic, mild, and transient. In rare cases, however, the ICM-induced thyroid dysfunction may be severe and life threatening. Recently, the European Thyroid Association (ETA) Guidelines for the Management of Iodine-Based Contrast Media-Induced Thyroid Dysfunction were published. The authors advise an individualized approach to prevention and treatment of ICM-induced thyroid dysfunction, based on patient's age, clinical symptoms, pre-existing thyroid diseases, coexisting morbidities, and iodine intake. There is a geographic variation of ICM-induced thyroid dysfunction prevalence, which is linked to iodine intake. The prevalence of ICM-induced hyperthyroidism, which may pose a serious therapeutic challenge, is greater in countries with iodine deficiency. Poland is a region with a history of iodine deficiency, contributing to an increased prevalence of nodular thyroid disease, especially in the elderly. Therefore, the Polish Society of Endocrinology has proposed national, simplified principles of ICM-induced thyroid dysfunction prevention and treatment.

PCSK9 Inhibition During the Inflammatory Stage of SARS-CoV-2 Infection.

BACKGROUND: The intensity of inflammation during COVID-19 is related to adverse outcomes. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is involved in low-density lipoprotein receptor homeostasis, with potential influence on vascular inflammation and on COVID-19 inflammatory response. OBJECTIVES: The goal of this study was to investigate the impact of PCSK9 inhibition vs placebo on clinical and laboratory outcomes in patients with severe COVID-19. METHODS: In this double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter pilot trial, 60 patients hospitalized for severe COVID-19, with ground-glass opacity pneumonia and arterial partial oxygen pressure to fraction of inspired oxygen ratio ≤300 mm Hg, were randomized 1:1 to receive a single 140-mg subcutaneous injection of evolocumab or placebo. The primary endpoint was death or need for intubation at 30 days. The main secondary endpoint was change in circulating interleukin (IL)-6 at 7 and 30 days from baseline. RESULTS: Patients randomized to receive the PCSK9 inhibitor had lower rates of death or need for intubation within 30 days vs placebo (23.3% vs 53.3%, risk difference: -30%; 95% CI: -53.40% to -6.59%). Serum IL-6 across time was lower with the PCSK9 inhibitor than with placebo (30-day decline: -56% vs -21%). Patients with baseline IL-6 above the median had lower mortality with PCSK9 inhibition vs placebo (risk difference: -37.50%; 95% CI: -68.20% to -6.70%). CONCLUSIONS: PCSK9 inhibition compared with placebo reduced the primary endpoint of death or need for intubation and IL-6 levels in severe COVID-19. Patients with more intense inflammation at randomization had better survival with PCSK9 inhibition vs placebo, indicating that inflammatory intensity may drive therapeutic benefits. (Impact of PCSK9 Inhibition on Clinical Outcome in Patients During the Inflammatory Stage of the COVID-19 [IMPACT-SIRIO 5]; NCT04941105).

Is Restless Legs Syndrome De Facto Thyroid Disease?

While a primary role in the pathogenesis of restless legs syndrome (RLS) has been attributed to dysfunction of the dopaminergic system and impaired iron metabolism (particularly in the central nervous system), it has been hypothesized that an imbalance between thyroid hormones and dopaminergic activity may be the starting point for all aspects of RLS. Although this hypothesis was proposed more than a decade ago, it has not yet been verified beyond doubt. The main aim of this study is to compare the prevalence of RLS in a population of patients with the most common thyroid gland diseases with a population of individuals with a healthy thyroid gland. The study included 237 participants divided into smaller groups according to the thyroid disease concerning them. Each participant had a laboratory diagnosis, an ultrasound scan and an assessment of the fulfilment of RLS criteria according to the International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group (IRLSSG) criteria. The results obtained were subjected to statistical analysis. RLS is significantly more common in patients with known thyroid disease; Hashimoto's disease, among others, manifests a 2.56× higher risk of a positive diagnosis for RLS than the general population. The association of RLS with thyroid disease is notable, although it is difficult to conclude unequivocally that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two. Further investigation into a potentially autoimmune cause of restless legs syndrome should be considered.

Update of the diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines for gastro-entero-pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (recommended by the Polish Network of Neuroendocrine Tumours) [Aktualizacja zalecen ogólnych dotyczacych postepowania diagnostyczno-terapeutycznego w nowotworach neuroendokrynnych ukladu pokarmowego (rekomendowane przez Polska Siec Guzów Neuroendokrynnych)].

Continuous progress in the diagnostics and treatment of neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs), the emerging results of new clinical trials, and the new guidelines issued by medical societies have prompted experts from the Polish Network of Neuroendocrine Tumours to update the 2017 recommendations regarding the management of neuroendocrine neoplasms. This article presents the general recommendations for the management of NENs, resulting from the findings of the experts participating in the Fourth Round Table Conference, entitled "Polish Guidelines for the Diagnostics and Treatment of Neuroendocrine Neoplasms of the gastrointestinal tract, Zelechów, June 2021". Drawing from the extensive experience of centres treating these cancers, we hope that we have managed to formulate the optimal method of treating patients with NENs, applying the latest reports and achievements in the field of medicine, which can be effectively implemented in our country. The respective parts of this work present the approach to the management of: NENs of the stomach and duodenum (including gastrinoma), pancreas, small intestine, and appendix, as well as large intestine.

Pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms - update of the diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines (recommended by the Polish Network of Neuroendocrine Tumours) [Nowotwory neuroendokrynne trzustki - uaktualnione zasady diagnostyki i leczenia (rekomendowane przez Polska Siec Guzów Neuroendokrynych)].

In this paper, we present the current guidelines for the diagnostics and management of pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (PanNENs) developed by Polish experts providing care for these patients in everyday clinical practice. In oncological diagnostics, in addition to biochemical tests, molecular identification with the use of NETest liquid biopsy and circulating microRNAs is gaining importance. Both anatomical and functional examinations (including new radiopharmaceuticals) are used in imaging diagnostics. Histopathological diagnosis along with immunohistochemical examination still constitute the basis for therapeutic decisions. Whenever possible, surgical procedure is the treatment of choice. Pharmacological management including biotherapy, radioisotope therapy, targeted molecular therapy and chemotherapy are important methods of systemic therapy. Treatment of PanNENs requires a multidisciplinary team of specialists in the field of neuroendocrine neoplasms.

Gastroduodenal neuroendocrine neoplasms including gastrinoma - update of the diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines (recommended by the Polish Network of Neuroendocrine Tumours) [Nowotwory neuroendokrynne zoladka i dwunastnicy z uwzglednieniem gastrinoma - uaktualnione zasady postepowania (rekomendowane przez Polska Siec Guzów Neuroendokrynnych)].

After another meeting of experts of the Polish Network of Neuroendocrine Tumours, updated recommendations for the management of patients with gastric and duodenal neuroendocrine neoplasms, including gastrinoma, have been issued. As before, the epidemiology, pathogenesis and clinical symptoms of these neoplasms have been discussed, as well as the principles of diagnostic procedures, including biochemical and histopathological diagnostics and tumour localisation, highlighting the changes introduced in the recommendations. Updated principles of therapeutic management have also been presented, including endoscopic and surgical treatment, and the options of pharmacological and radioisotope treatment. The importance of monitoring patients with gastric and duodenal NENs, including gastrinoma, has also been emphasised.

Colorectal neuroendocrine neoplasms - update of the diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines (recommended by the Polish Network of Neuroendocrine Tumours) [Nowotwory neuroendokrynne jelita grubego - uaktualnione zasady diagnostyki i leczenia (rekomendowane przez Polska Siec Guzów Neuroendokrynych)].

Colorectal neuroendocrine neoplasm (CRNEN), especially rectal tumours, are diagnosed with increased frequency due to the widespread use of colonoscopy, including screening examinations. It is important to constantly update and promote the principles of optimal diagnostics and treatment of these neoplasms. Based on the latest literature and arrangements made at the working meeting of the Polish Network of Neuroendocrine Tumours (June 2021), this paper includes updated and supplemented data and guidelines for the management of CRNEN originally published in Endokrynologia Polska 2017; 68: 250-260.

Neuroendocrine neoplasms of the small intestine and the appendix - update of the diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines (recommended by the Polish Network of Neuroendocrine Tumours) [Nowotwory neuroendokrynne jelita cienkiego i wyrostka robaczkowego - uaktualnione zasady diagnostyki i leczenia (rekomendowane przez Polska Siec Guzów Neuroendokrynnych)].

Updated Polish recommendations for the management of patients with neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) of the small intestine (SINENs) and of the appendix (ANENs) are presented here. The small intestine, and especially the ileum, is one of the most common locations for these neoplasms. Most of them are well-differentiated and slow-growing tumours; uncommonly - neuroendocrine carcinomas. Their symptoms may be untypical and their diagnosis may be delayed or accidental. Najczesciej pierwsza manifestacja ANEN jest jego ostre zapalenie. Typical symptoms of carcinoid syndrome occur in approximately 20-30% of SINENs patients with distant metastases. In laboratory diagnostics the assessment of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid concentration is helpful in the diagnosis of carcinoid syndrome. The most commonly used imaging methods are ultrasound examination, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, colonoscopy and somatostatin receptor imaging. Histopathological examination is crucial for the proper diagnosis and treatment of patients with SINENs and ANENs. The treatment of choice is a surgical procedure, either radical or palliative. Long-acting somatostatin analogues (SSAs) are essential in the medical treatment of functional and non-functional SINENs. In patients with SINENs, at the stage dissemination with progression during SSAs treatment, with high expression of somatostatin receptors, radioisotope therapy should be considered first followed by targeted therapies - everolimus. After the exhaustion of the above available therapies, chemotherapy may be considered in selected cases. Recommendations for patient monitoring are also presented.

Aberrations in carbohydrate metabolism in patients with diagnosed acromegaly - observational study.

INTRODUCTION: Acromegaly is characterized by excessive secretion of growth hormone (GH). The incidence rate of acromegaly is 40 to 70 persons per one million people. Carbohydrate disorders often accompany the above pathology. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of high levels of somatotropin on aberrations in glycaemia in patients with acromegaly, and then a 5-year observation. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study group consisted of 86 patients (48 females and 38 males) with acromegaly diagnosed on the basis of clinical features, elevated insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) levels, and/or no inhibition of GH ≤ 1 ug/L secretion during 2 hours after an oral glucose load. RESULTS: In the study group type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) was diagnosed in 21 patients (24.4%). There were also 14 cases (16.3%) of the diagnosis of impaired fasting glucose (IFG) and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) combined. The mean age of participants with concomitant T2DM was 52.1 years, while the mean age of those without carbohydrate metabolism disturbances was 46.1 years. During a 5-year observation, we noticed an increase level of glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) and new cases of pre-diabetes and T2DM. CONCLUSION: In patients with acromegaly the incidence rate of T2DM is 3-4 times higher than in the rest of the population, and it increases with age, especially after the patient reaches 55 years old.

Consequences of diabetes and pre-diabetes and the role of biochemical parameters of carbohydrate metabolism for the functioning of the prefrontal cortex in obese patients.

BACKGROUND: The role of executive functions (EF) is to maintain particular behaviours in order to achieve intended goals. EF are crucial in management of pre-diabetes, diabetes and obesity which are grievous diseases and can lead to severe complications. The aims of our study were to: assess EF in group of obese subject with carbohydrate disorders, evaluate whether biochemical factors and comorbidities related to metabolic disorders have adverse effect on EF in this group of patients. METHODS: The study included 185 obese patients (146 women; 39 men) who were divided on three groups: pre-diabetic, diabetic and control subgroup. Patient underwent Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) to evaluate EF. Assessed biochemical factors included C-peptide, fasting plasma glucose (FPG) and glycosylated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c). RESULTS: Diabetic patients showed the worst WCST scores among the rest of groups. Pre-diabetic individuals did not differ in EF performance from control subgroup. We observed significant correlations between FPG and HbA1c and worse WCST scores in pre-diabetic subgroup. In diabetic patients C-peptide correlated with poorer EF. Depressive symptoms and hypertension significantly correlated with non-perseverative errors in WCST. CONCLUSIONS: The subgroup of diabetic patients were the most obese and had the worst glycemia parameters. They also showed the worst EF in WCST. According to obtained results, hyperglycemia positively correlated with poor EF in pre-diabetes. However, in diabetic subjects cognitive deterioration may results from insulin resistance rather than hyperglycemia. In obese individuals with carbohydrate disorders both hypertension and depressive symptoms significantly contributed to EF dysfunction.

Metabolic syndrome in women - correlation between BMI and waist circumference.

INTRODUCTION: Metabolic syndrome (MetS), which includes abdominal obesity, hypertension, hypertriglyceridaemia, low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and elevated fasting plasma glucose, is now well understood. The prevalence of MetS is increasing all over the world. Central obesity is the main and the most common component of MetS. The most simple, practical, and frequently used tool for assessing body weight is body mass index. The aim of our study was to show the correlation between waist circumference (WC) and BMI in women with MetS depending on its components. MATERIAL AND METHODS: It was a study of 36-month duration (2016-2019) conducted in University Hospital No. 1 in Bydgoszcz, Poland. The study included 696 women with diagnosed MetS according to the 2009 International Diabetes Federation criteria. RESULTS: In the study group, WC was found to be significantly correlated with BMI according to the arterial hypertension, T2DM, IFG, lower HDL-C, and higher TG level. CONCLUSION: We should consider changing the WC guidelines for Europeans, but for this we need more prospective studies.

Hyperprolactinemia and insulin resistance.

Hyperprolactinaemia is the most common dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis and occurs more commonly in women. The prevalence of hyperprolactinaemia ranges from 0.4% in the general adult population to as high as 9-17% in women with reproductive diseases. It is accompanied by the phenomenon of insulin resistance (IR), which is also a significant clinical problem nowadays. The prevalence of IR is increasing, particularly in developing countries and in younger populations, with estimates of prevalence ranging from 20 to 40% in different populations. The aim of our review is to summarize recent data on the possible association between IR and hyperprolactinaemia. This review is based on an electronic search of the literature in the PubMed database published from 2000 to 2022 using combinations of the following keywords: IR, hyperprolactinemia or IR and hyperprolactinemia. The references included in previously published review articles were also checked, and any relevant papers were also included. Numerous scientific studies have shown a relationship between IR and hyperprolactinaemia. Increased plasma prolactin (PRL) levels are often associated with an increase in tissue resistance to insulin. There are many scientific theories explaining the probable mechanisms of this phenomenon. One is the finding that glucose and PRL act synergistically in inducing the transcription of insulin genes. It is also suggested that PRL may act as a regulator of insulin sensitivity and metabolic homeostasis in adipose tissue. The topic of the mutual correlation of hyperprolactinaemia and IR is important, and it certainly requires further research and observation.