Longitudinal relationship between screen-based sedentary behavior and nutrient intake in Japanese children: an observational epidemiological cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Concerns regarding the impact of screen-based sedentary behavior on health have been increasing. Therefore, the present study investigated the longitudinal relationship between multiple screen time and nutrient intake in children and adolescents. METHODS: The present study was conducted utilizing 3 years longitudinal data. Study subjects were 740 Japanese children aged between 6 and 12 years at baseline and between 9 and 15 years in the follow-up. Screen-based sedentary behavior was assessed using screen time, including television (TV) viewing, personal computer (PC) use, and mobile phone (MP) use. The main outcomes were the intakes of nutrients. Mixed effect multivariate linear regression analyses were used to examine the longitudinal relationship between screen-based sedentary time and nutrient intake. Covariates included in the multivariable analysis consisted of sex, age, solitary eating, skipping breakfast, staying up late, and body weight status, as confounders, and physical inactivity, as mediator. RESULTS: In boys, a longer total screen time longitudinally correlated with higher intake of energy and lower intakes of protein, dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins. In girls, longer total screen time longitudinally associated with higher intake of sucrose and lower intakes of protein, minerals, and vitamins. In boys, a longer TV viewing time was associated with higher intake of sucrose and lower intakes of protein, minerals, and vitamins. In girls, a longer TV viewing time was associated with higher intake of carbohydrates and lower intakes of protein, fat, minerals, and vitamins. In boys, relationships were observed between a longer PC use time and higher intakes of energy as well as lower intakes of protein, minerals, and vitamins. Relationship was observed between longer PC use time and lower intakes of minerals in girls. An increased MP use time was associated with higher intakes of energy, and lower intakes of protein, sucrose, dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins in boys. A longer MP use time was associated with higher intakes of fat, and salt as well as lower intakes of carbohydrates, protein, minerals, and vitamins in girls. CONCLUSIONS: The present results revealed that longer screen-based sedentary behaviors were longitudinally associated with nutrient intake in children and adolescents. Future study is needed to elucidate these relationships.

Higher Intake of Vegetable Protein and Lower Intake of Animal Fats Reduce the Incidence of Diabetes in Non-Drinking Males: A Prospective Epidemiological Analysis of the Shika Study.

Although nutrient intake and alcohol consumption are both closely associated with the incidence of diabetes, their interrelationships remain unclear. Therefore, we herein have investigated the interrelationships among nutrient intake, alcohol consumption, and the incidence of diabetes using longitudinal data. This study included 969 residents ≥40 years living in Japan. In 2011 and 2012, a baseline study was conducted using questionnaires on basic demographics, diabetes, nutrient intake, and lifestyle habits. In 2018 and 2019, a follow-up study was performed using questionnaires and medical records on diabetes. Two-way analysis of covariance (two-way ANCOVA) was used to test the interactions of drinking habits and diabetes incidence on nutrients intake. The prospective relationship between nutrient intake at baseline and the incidence of diabetes in the follow-up stratified by drinkers and non-drinkers was evaluated using multiple logistic regression analysis. Interactions were observed for vegetable protein intake (p = 0.023) and animal fat intake (p = 0.016) in males. Vegetable protein intake negatively correlated with the incidence of diabetes in non-drinkers (odds ratio (OR): 0.208; 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 0.046-0.935; p = 0.041). Furthermore, animal fat intake positively correlated with the incidence of diabetes in non-drinkers (OR: 1.625; 95% CI: 1.020-2.589; p = 0.041). Therefore, vegetable protein and animal fat intakes in combination with drinking habits need to be considered for the prevention of diabetes.

Relationships among Depressive Symptoms, Body Weight, and Chronic Pain: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the Shika Study.

Although depression and body weight have individually been associated with chronic pain (CP), it currently remains unclear whether the combination of depressive symptoms (DS) and being underweight/overweight is related to CP. Therefore, we herein investigated the relationships among depression, body mass index (BMI), and CP in community-dwelling middle-aged and elderly individuals. Participants comprised 2216 inhabitants of Shika town in Ishikawa prefecture, Japan, including 1003 males (mean age of 68.72 years, standard deviation (SD) of 8.36) and 1213 females (mean age of 69.65 years, SD of 9.36). CP and DS were assessed using a CP questionnaire and Geriatric Depression Scale-15, respectively. The Breslow-Day test indicated that DS positively correlated with lumbar/knee pain in the BMI < 25 group, but not in the BMI ≥ 25 group. Furthermore, lumber/knee pain was related to a higher BMI. These results were confirmed by a logistic analysis with age, sex, BMI, solitary living, the duration of education, no exercise/hobbies, smoking history, alcohol intake, and medical treatment for diabetes, hyperlipidemia, or hypertension as confounding factors. The present study indicates the importance of considering DS and BMI in the prevention of CP. Further studies are needed to clarify the causal relationships among depression, BMI, and CP.

Prospective relationship between autistic traits and nutrient intakes among Japanese children: Results of the Shika study.

LAY ABSTRACT: It is known about food selectivity among children with autism spectrum disorder. However, the nutritional inadequacy among children with ASD is not clear. Especially, long-term evaluation has not been studied. We examined the prospective relationship between autistic traits in children and subsequent nutrient intake in later childhood. We utilized data obtained at two time points from a study conducted in Japan. Participants were 759 Japanese children aged between 7 and 12 years at baseline and between 10 and 15 years in the follow-up. The results showed relatively lower intakes of sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron, vitamin D, vitamin B2, and vitamin B12 among children with than without autistic traits. Relatively lower intake of minerals and vitamins in children with autistic traits is more evident in later childhood. The results suggest the importance of screening the nutrient intake of children with autistic traits across childhood.

Bone Strength of the Calcaneus Is Associated with Dietary Calcium Intake in Older Japanese Men, but Not Women.

The relationship between calcium intake and bone strength in older Asian individuals, including Japanese, is controversial; therefore, we herein investigated this relationship in older Japanese populations. We performed a cross-sectional analysis of 314 participants older than 65 years who voluntarily participated in a medical examination and responded to questionnaires. The osteo-sono assessment index (OSI) measured at the right calcaneus using a quantitative ultrasonic device was used as an indicator of bone strength. The daily dietary intake of calcium was assessed using a brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire. A two-way analysis of covariance revealed a significant interaction between sex and calcium intake on the OSI (p < 0.01). A multiple regression analysis showed a positive correlation between calcium intake and the OSI in males (p < 0.01), but not females (p = 0.27). In females, grip strength divided by body weight positively correlated with the OSI (p = 0.04). The present results suggest that a higher calcium intake contributes to bone strength in older Japanese males. Although a higher grip strength may contribute to bone strength in females, the potential of estrogen as a confounding factor needs to be considered.

Hypertension and Low Body Weight Are Associated with Depressive Symptoms Only in Females: Findings from the Shika Study.

Although the relationship between hypertension and depression is influenced by several physiological factors, including body weight and other lifestyle factors, such as eating behavior, the specific involvement of depression in hypertension remains unclear. Therefore, this epidemiological study examined the role of body weight in the relationship between hypertension and depressive symptoms among the middle-aged and elderly living in the community of Shika town. In total, 1141 males and 1142 females with mean ages of 69.09 and 70.61 years, respectively, participated this study. Physiological factors, including blood pressure, body mass index (BMI), and lifestyle, were investigated in a medical check-up in Shika town. Depressive symptoms were evaluated using the Geriatric Depression Scale 15 (GDS-15). A two-way analysis of covariance exhibited a significant interaction between the two hypertensive groups and body size groups on GDS in females. The post hoc Bonferroni method showed that in the hypertensive groups, GDS was significantly higher in the underweight group (BMI < 18.5) than in the standard/overweight group; however, this relationship was not observed in the no-hypertensive groups. Multiple regression analysis also verified this relationship. Therefore, it is suggested that the combination of hypertension and being underweight is associated with depressive symptoms only in females.

Association between Vitamin Intake and Chronic Kidney Disease According to a Variant Located Upstream of the PTGS1 Gene: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Shika Study.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients have been advised to take vitamins; however, the effects have been controversial. The individual differences in developing CKD might involve genetic variants of inflammation, including variant rs883484 located upstream of the prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 1 (PTGS1) gene. We aimed to identify whether the 12 dietary vitamin intake interacts with genotypes of the rs883484 on developing CKD. The population-based, cross-sectional study had 684 Japanese participants (≥40 years old). The study used a validated, brief, self-administered diet history questionnaire to estimate the intake of the dietary vitamins. CKD was defined as estimated glomerular filtration < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2. The study participants had an average age of 62.1 ± 10.8 years with 15.4% minor homozygotes of rs883484, and 114 subjects had CKD. In the fully adjusted model, the higher intake of vitamins, namely niacin (odds ratio (OR) = 0.74, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.57−0.96, p = 0.024), α-tocopherol (OR = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.26−0.95, p = 0.034), and vitamin C (OR = 0.97, 95% CI: 0.95−1.00, p = 0.037), was independently associated with lower CKD tendency in the minor homozygotes of rs883484. The results suggested the importance of dietary vitamin intake in the prevention of CKD in middle-aged to older-aged Japanese with minor homozygous of rs883484 gene variant.

Association Between Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Concentrations, CDX2 Polymorphism in Promoter Region of Vitamin D Receptor Gene, and Chronic Pain in Rural Japanese Residents.

Background: Previous studies examined the association between chronic pain (CP) and serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentrations; however, the findings obtained were inconsistent. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) associated with the transcriptional activity of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) gene may influence the association of 25(OH)D levels with CP. We aimed to clarify the association between CP, serum 25(OH)D concentration, and SNPs. Methods: In the Shika study, we performed a cross-sectional analysis of 551 participants older than 40 years who were asked whether they had been having persistent pain lasting for at least 3 months in any part of the body on a self-administered questionnaire. Serum 25(OH)D concentrations were assessed as a biomarker of the vitamin D status using a radioimmunoassay. rs731236, rs7975232, rs1544410, rs2228570, and rs11568820 were identified using peripheral blood samples, and participants were assigned to those with or without the minor allele for each SNP. Results: The prevalence of CP was 37.2%. We observed a tendency for lower 25(OH)D levels in participants with CP than in those without CP in the hetero/minor group of rs11568820, which is a polymorphism within the CDX2-binding site in the 1e promoter region of the VDR gene. Furthermore, a logistic regression analysis revealed that lower serum 25(OH)D concentrations were significantly associated with CP in the hetero/minor group, but not in the major group. Conclusion: These results suggest that sufficient serum 25(OH)D concentration reduces the risk of CP in individuals with the minor allele of the CDX2 polymorphism.

Effect of ß3-adrenergic receptor gene polymorphism and lifestyle on overweight Japanese rural residents: A cross-sectional study.

Objectives: The ß3-adrenergic receptor (ADRB3) gene polymorphism has been implicated in obesity. Therefore, the contribution of ADRB3 Trp64Arg polymorphism to obesity-related indicators was investigated, taking into account the lifestyle-related factors in a Japanese rural population. Methods: A total of 600 Japanese adults aged ≥40 years in a population-based cohort study were analyzed. The ADRB3 polymorphism was determined using peripheral blood samples. Associations between genotype and body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), and body fat (BF) percentage were examined, adjusting for lifestyle-related factors, including daily nutrient intake. Results: The frequency of Arg64 allele carriers was 36%. There was no significant difference in BMI, WC, or BF between the groups with or without the Trp64Arg polymorphism. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that the Trp64Arg polymorphism was not associated with these three indicators, but lifestyle factors including physical inactivity, higher energy and sodium consumption, and less animal protein intake were significantly related to increased WC and BF percentages. Conclusions: The Trp64Arg polymorphism of ADRB3 gene did not contribute to increased BMI, WC, or BF. However, lifestyle-related factors impacted these indicators in middle-aged and older Japanese individuals living in rural areas.

Relationship between Alcohol Intake and Chronic Pain with Depressive Symptoms: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the Shika Study.

Although alcohol intake is associated with chronic pain (CP) and analgesia, epidemiological studies have not yet examined the factors affecting the relationship between alcohol intake and CP in detail. Therefore, the present cross-sectional study investigated the relationship between alcohol intake and CP in community-dwelling middle-aged and elderly individuals with/without depressive symptoms. Participants comprised 2223 inhabitants of Shika town in Ishikawa prefecture, located on the Noto Peninsula facing the Sea of Japan, and included 1007 males and 1216 females. CP, depressive symptoms, and alcohol intake were assessed using a CP questionnaire, the Geriatric Depression Scale-15 and the brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire, respectively. In males without depressive symptoms, mean alcohol intake was significantly higher at 5.70% energy (27.92 g/day) in the CP group than that of 3.75% energy (20.00 g/day) in the non-CP group. The prevalence of low back/knee pain was also significantly higher in males with than in those without depressive symptoms. The present results suggest that long-term alcohol intake is related to CP by reducing the pain threshold and enhancing nociceptive pain as a possible mechanism. However, even a low alcohol intake was associated with psychogenic pain in participants with depressive symptoms. Further studies to investigate the involvement of depressive symptoms and alcohol intake in CP and its prevention are needed.

A retrospective cohort study on the association between poor sleep quality in junior high school students and high hemoglobin A1c level in early adults with higher body mass index values.

BACKGROUND: Few epidemiological studies have been performed to clarify the association between glucose metabolism disorders in early adults (20 years old) and physiological and environmental factors, including body mass index (BMI) in junior high school days. Therefore, we examined the association between hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) level and body size (BMI) in early adulthood and lifestyles, including sleep habits and BMI in junior high school days in Shika town, a small town in Japan, by conducting a retrospective cohort study. METHODS: We examined the HbA1c levels and body size (BMI) of 99 early adults who turned 20 years old between 2016 and 2020 and were residing in Shika town, Ishikawa Prefecture. We obtained the information on lifestyles and living environment factors, including BMI, from a questionnaire survey conducted among the subjects during their junior high school days (13-15 years old) from 2009 to 2013. RESULTS: No correlations were observed between the HbA1c levels and the BMI values of the early adults. A two-way analysis of covariance (with the HbA1c levels and BMI values of the early adults as main factors) of the body size and lifestyle habits of the junior high school students revealed that "sleep quality in junior high school" was significantly poorer in the high HbA1c group than in the low HbA1c group in the early adults with high BMI values only. This result was also supported by the logistic regression analysis result. CONCLUSIONS: The present results indicate that poor sleep quality in junior high school was associated with the high HbA1c levels of the early adults with higher BMI values, which suggests that good sleep quality in junior high school prevents the development of hyperglycemia. However, the present study did not find any relationship between early-adult BMI and HbA1c level.

Increased Prevalence of Atopic Dermatitis in Children Aged 0-3 Years Highly Exposed to Parabens.

The prevalence of allergic diseases, such as bronchial asthma, atopic dermatitis, nasal allergies (pollinosis), and food allergies, has been increasing in many countries. The hygiene hypothesis was recently considered from the perspective of exposure to antimicrobial agents and preservatives, such as parabens (CAS number, 94-13-3). It currently remains unclear whether parabens, which are included in many daily consumer products such as cosmetics, shampoos, and personal care products as preservative antimicrobial agents, induce or aggravate allergies. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between exposure to parabens and the prevalence of allergic diseases in Japanese children. The cross-sectional epidemiology of 236 children aged 0-3 years who underwent health examinations in Shika town in Japan assessed individual exposure to parabens using urinary concentrations of parabens. The results obtained showed that the prevalence of atopic dermatitis was significantly higher in children with high urinary concentrations of parabens than in those with low concentrations (p < 0.001). This relationship remained significant after adjustments for confounding factors, such as age, sex, Kaup's index, and passive smoking (p < 0.001). In conclusion, the present results from a population study suggested a relationship between atopic dermatitis and exposure to parabens. A longitudinal study using a larger sample number and a detailed examination of atopic dermatitis, including EASI scores and exposure to parabens, will be necessary.

Relationships among the ß3-adrenargic receptor gene Trp64Arg polymorphism, hypertension, and insulin resistance in a Japanese population.

A polymorphism in the ADRB3 gene (Trp64Arg) has been associated with obesity, insulin resistance, and hypertension. This cross-sectional study investigated the relationships among this polymorphism, hypertension, and insulin resistance values (HOMA-IR) in 719 Japanese subjects aged 40 years and older. The genotype frequencies of Trp64Trp (homozygous, wild), Trp64Arg (heterozygous, variant), and Arg64Arg (homozygous, variant) were 466 (65%), 233 (32%), and 20 (3%), respectively. Insulin resistance was associated with an increased risk of hypertension in a Japanese population. This relationship was dependent on the presence or absence of the Trp64Arg polymorphism (odds ratio, 2.054; confidence interval, 1.191 to 3.541; P value, 0.010). Therefore, the Trp64Arg polymorphism of ADRB3 was associated with hypertension and insulin resistance in a healthy Japanese population. This relationship, which was dependent on the polymorphism, may predict the development of hypertension and diabetes.

Validation of the Japanese Version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-Revised: A Preliminary Analysis.

To make the Japanese version of the CESD-R-a revised version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies depression scale (CES-D)-in the assessment of depressive symptoms in a general population. The English version of CESD-R was translated into Japanese, and back-translated into English by three native speakers of Japanese and English; then, we selected the version most completely consistent with the original items. The CESD-R was applied to 398 community-dwelling people (191 men: 48.0%, and 207 women: 52.0%) who were over 40 years old. The Japanese version of the CES-D was also carried out in the same population. Factor analysis was performed. Additionally, the correlations between the CESD-R and CES-D results were identified. The CESD-R scores showed a significantly positive correlation with CES-D scores (r = 0.74, p < 0.0005). Analysis of the CESD-R yielded a Cronbach's alpha result of 0.90. Factor analysis revealed one principal factor in the CESD-R, whereas the original CES-D had two factors because of reversed items. The Japanese version of the CESD-R appears to have the reliability to be applicable for assessing depressive symptoms in population-based samples. However, because the Japanese expressions for some items might be unusual, our study population was also limited; further studies on other populations and on incorporating improved Japanese terminology will be needed.

Relationship between Vitamin Intake and Health-Related Quality of Life in a Japanese Population: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the Shika Study.

Although epidemiological studies revealed a relationship between psychosocial states, such as depressive symptoms, and nutritional intake, limited information is currently available on vitamin intake. The Short Form-36 Health Survey (SF-36) is not limited to a specific disease, it is constructed based on a universal concept of health and is used to evaluate the Quality of life (QOL). A three-component scoring method was developed for "Physical component score (PCS)", "Mental component score (MCS)", and "Role/social score (RCS)". Collectively, these summary scores are called the "QOL summary score", which is regarded as a more detailed health summary score. In the present study, we aimed at epidemiologically examine the relationship between vitamin intake and QOL in middle-aged and elderly population in 3162 residents in Japan. In women, a multiple regression analysis showed a positive correlation between all vitamin intake and PCS scores, and between vitamin B6, folic acid, vitamin C, and MCS scores. In consideration of depression as MCS of SF-36 and chronic pain as PCS, an insufficient vitamin intake may affect QOL in women; however, a causal relationship has not yet been demonstrated.

The association between overweight and prevalence of food allergy in Japanese children: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Food allergy (FA) is a common disease in children, and its prevalence has increased in developed countries. The impact of overweight on children health also becomes an important social problem. However, the relationship between overweight and FA is still unclear. We examined the association between overweight and the prevalence of FA among Japanese children. METHODS: We analyzed data obtained using a self-administered questionnaire from 1772 Japanese children. Weight groups according to body mass index cutoff points proposed by the International Obesity Task Force were used to create two groups: overweight and non-overweight. Children were separated into four age groups (3-6 years, 6-9 years, 9-12 years, and 12-15 years) to examine age differences. We performed univariate and multivariate logistic models to examine the association between overweight and FA. RESULTS: The prevalence of FA was significantly higher in boys (10.6%, p = 0.014) than girls (4.5%) and girls (7.9%, p = 0.012) than boys (2.5%) for 6-9 and 12-15 age groups, respectively. While the prevalence of FA was significantly higher in overweight than non-overweight girls (26.1%, p = 0.005) in the 12-15 age group, no significant difference was found in boys. In girls, overweight was significantly associated with FA after adjustment for age and asthma (odds ratio 1.99, 95% confidence interval 1.01-3.89, p = 0.046). CONCLUSIONS: Our results showed that being overweight was significantly associated with a higher prevalence of FA in girls, but not in boys. Further prospective studies are necessary to find the causal relationship between overweight and FA.

Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with impaired insulin secretion and fasting glucose in non-obese non-diabetic men.

AIMS/INTRODUCTION: A low insulin secretion capacity has been implicated in the high prevalence of non-obese diabetes in East Asians. As alcohol consumption alters insulin and glucose metabolism, we tested the hypothesis that alcohol consumption contributes to impaired insulin secretion and glucose intolerance in lean/normal-weight non-diabetic Japanese men. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This cross-sectional study was undertaken among the residents of Shika town, Japan, between 2011 and 2017. A total of 402 non-diabetic men, including participants with normal fasting plasma glucose (FPG) and impaired FPG (FPG 5.6-6.9 mmol/L), and aged ≥40 years, were examined. FPG, the homeostasis model assessment of insulin secretion capacity (HOMA-B) and alcohol consumption were evaluated and compared between the body mass index (BMI) <25 and BMI ≥25 groups. RESULTS: HOMA-B levels were lower in the BMI <25 group than in the BMI ≥25 group. Alcohol consumption correlated with a low HOMA-B level regardless of BMI, and, thus, the HOMA-B levels of alcohol drinkers were significantly lower in the BMI <25 group. A multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that alcohol consumption, even light-to-moderate consumption (1-25 g/day), was associated with significantly low levels of HOMA-B and impaired FPG in the BMI <25 group. Among participants with impaired FPG, a low level of HOMA-B was observed in alcohol drinkers, but not in non-drinkers. In contrast, light-to-moderate alcohol consumption was not related to HOMA-B or FPG in the BMI ≥25-group. CONCLUSION: Alcohol consumption, even a small amount, might contribute to reductions in HOMA-B levels and impaired FPG in lean/normal-weight Japanese men.

Relationship between Autistic Traits and Nutrient Intake among Japanese Children and Adolescents.

Increased food selectivity among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may lead to nutritional inadequacy. The present study examined differences in nutrient intake between children and adolescents with and without ASD. We utilized cross-sectional data from the ongoing population Shika Town rural Japanese study. The participants were 1276 Japanese pupils and students aged between 7 and 15 years. ASD traits were evaluated using the Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ). Nutrient intake was assessed using a food frequency questionnaire. A one-way analysis of covariance (one-way ANCOVA) was performed to compare the mean nutrient intakes between participants with and without ASD traits. A two-way ANCOVA was conducted to compare the mean nutrient intakes among participants with and without ASD traits in different age groups (children and adolescents). The results obtained showed that the intake of carbohydrates and slightly lower intakes of protein, fat, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, retinol, vitamin B2, vitamin B12, folic acid, and pantothenic acid were higher among children and adolescents with ASD than among those without ASD. No interactions were observed between the autistic groups and age groups, excluding energy intakes. The present results indicate the importance of screening the nutrient intakes of ASD children and adolescents.

Dietary Calcium Intake and Hypertension: Importance of Serum Concentrations of 25-Hydroxyvitamin D.

The relationship among dietary calcium, hypertension and vitamin D status currently remains unclear. This population-based cross-sectional study examined the association between dietary calcium intake and hypertension and the influence of serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] in Japanese subjects. A total of 619 subjects aged from 40 years were recruited. Dietary intake was measured using a validated brief self-administered diet history questionnaire. Hypertension was defined as the use of antihypertensive medication or a blood pressure of 140/90 mmHg. Serum concentrations of 25(OH)D were used as the biomarker of vitamin D status. The prevalence of hypertension and low serum 25(OH)D levels (<20 ng/mL) were 55 and 32%, respectively. Dietary calcium intake inversely correlated with hypertension in subjects with serum 25(OH)D levels higher than 20 ng/mL (OR: 0.995; 95% CI: 0.991, 0.999) but it was not significant in those with serum 25(OH)D levels of 20 ng/mL or lower. Furthermore, dietary vitamin D intake correlated with serum concentrations of 25(OH)D after adjustments for various confounding factors. The present results demonstrate that the regular consumption of calcium may contribute to the prevention and treatment of hypertension in subjects with a non-vitamin D deficiency and also that dietary vitamin D intake may effectively prevents this deficiency.