Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases in Greece.

Tick-borne diseases (TBDs) are recognized as a serious and growing public health epidemic in Europe, and are a cause of major losses in livestock production worldwide. This review is an attempt to present a summary of results from studies conducted over the last century until the end of the year 2020 regarding ticks, tick-borne pathogens, and tick-borne diseases in Greece. We provide an overview of the tick species found in Greece, as well as the most important tick-borne pathogens (viruses, bacteria, protozoa) and corresponding diseases in circulation. We also consider prevalence data, as well as geographic and climatic conditions. Knowledge of past and current situations of TBDs, as well as an awareness of (risk) factors affecting future developments will help to find approaches to integrated tick management as part of the 'One Health Concept'; it will assist in avoiding the possibility of hotspot disease emergencies and intra- and intercontinental transmission. Increased surveillance in Greece is required to ensure clear and effective policies for TBD control.

Prevalence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in 1-2-month-old highland yaks in Qinghai Province, China.

Cryptosporidium and Giardia are ubiquitous parasites that infect humans and animals. Few reports are available on the prevalence of these two protozoan parasites in yaks (Bos grunniens). In this study, 344 faecal samples were collected from yaks with diarrhoea in the Chenduo and Nangqian counties of Qinghai Province, China. Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis were detected by light and immunofluorescence microscopy and nested PCR (nPCR). Fifteen samples were positive (4.5%) by Kinyoun staining, 40 (11.6%) samples were positive by immunofluorescence test (IFT), and 39 (11.3%) samples were positive by nPCR for Cryptosporidium spp., Cryptosporidium bovis (11/39, 28.2%) was the most prevalent species, followed by C. ryanae (6/39, 15.4%), C. andersoni (5/39, 12.8%), C. struthionis (5/39, 12.8%), C. parvum (5/39, 12.8%), C. hominis (4/39, 10.3%) and C. canis (3/39, 7.7%). Thirteen out of 344 (3.8%) samples were positive for Giardia by simple microscopy, 20 (5.8%) by IFT and 18 samples (5.2%) yak faecal samples were Giardia positive by nPCR. Two G. duodenalis assemblages (B, E) were detected in this study. Nine positive samples for G. duodenalis assemblage E were from the towns of Xiewu (8/9, 4.9%) and Xiangda (1/9, 1.3%), and nine positive samples (9/9, 8.5%) for G. duodenalis assemblage B were from the town of Zhenqin. This report provides information about infection with Cryptosporidium species and G. duodenalis assemblages in domesticated 1-2-month-old highland yaks living in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau region of China.

The first report of Cryptosporidium spp. in Microtus fuscus (Qinghai vole) and Ochotona curzoniae (wild plateau pika) in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau area, China.

Cryptosporidium is one of the most important genera of intestinal zoonotic pathogens, which can infect various hosts and cause diarrhoea. There is little available information about the molecular characterisation and epidemiological prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in Microtus fuscus (Qinghai vole) and Ochotona curzoniae (wild plateau pika) in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau area of Qinghai Province, Northwest China. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine Cryptosporidium species/genotypes and epidemiological prevalence in these mammals by detecting the SSU rRNA gene by PCR amplification. The Cryptosporidium spp. infection rate was 8.9% (8/90) in Qinghai voles and 6.25% (4/64) in wild plateau pikas. Positive samples were successfully sequenced, and the following Cryptosporidium species were found: C. parvum, C. ubiquitum, C. canis and a novel genotype in Qinghai voles and C. parvum and a novel genotype in wild plateau pikas. This is the first report of Cryptosporidium infections in M. fuscus and wild O. curzoniae in Northwest China. The results suggest the possibility of Cryptosporidium species transmission among these two hosts, the environment, other animals and humans and provide useful molecular epidemiological data for the prevention and control of Cryptosporidium infections in wild animals and the surrounding environments. The results of the present study indicate the existence of Cryptosporidium species infections that have potential public health significance. This is the first report of Cryptosporidium multi-species infections in these animal hosts.

Prevalence and molecular characterization of Giardia duodenalis in cattle and sheep from the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Area (QTPA), northwestern China.

Giardia duodenalis is an important intestinal protozoan parasite with a wide range of hosts, including humans, livestock and wildlife. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of G. duodenalis infections among cattle and sheep in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Area (QTPA) and to assess the potential risk of the zoonotic transmission of this pathogen. A total of 454 stool specimens were collected and examined using the nested PCR method based on the G. duodenalis SSUrRNA gene fragment. Thirty-nine out of 389 cattle specimens examined were positive (10%) for the G. duodenalis infection. After the sequence analysis of the SSUrRNA gene, all detected G. duodenalis belong to assemblage E. No G. duodenalis infections were found in the 65 investigated samples from sheep. Our data therefore indicates that G. duodenalis is a common parasite in cattle in the QTPA, China and that cattle appear to be a reservoir of G. duodenalis for other animals and the environmental water supplies in the area.

Molecular detection and prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. infections in two types of domestic farm animals in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Area (QTPA) in China.

The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium species infections in young cattle and sheep in the north-eastern part of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Area (QTPA), north-western China. A total number of 454 faecal samples (389 from cattle and 65 from sheep) were collected and investigated to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts. Cryptosporidium spp. infections detected in cattle (n = 56 positive samples) and sheep (n = 4 positive samples) were as following: C. andersoni (16/56, 28.6%) was the dominant species, followed by C. canis (9/56, 16.1%), C. bovis (9/56, 16.1%), C. hominis (8/56, 14.3%), C. struthionis (7/56, 12.5%), C. ryanae (5/56, 8.9%), and C. serpentis (2/56, 3.6%). Two Cryptosporidium species were detected in sheep: C. parvum (2/4) and C. canis (2/4). There were no mixed infections. C. hominis, C. struthionis, and C. serpentis are reported in domestic animals for the first time at the QTPA of China and our results indicate an anthropozoonotic transmission of C. hominis. The identification of Cryptosporidium spp. in domestic animals warrants better care of the farm animals in order to avoid contamination in vulnerable animal and human populations.

Water-borne protozoa parasites: The Latin American perspective.

Health systems, sanitation and water access have certain limitations in nations of Latin America (LA): typical matters of developing countries. Water is often contaminated and therefore unhealthy for the consumers and users. Information on prevalence and detection of waterborne parasitic protozoa are limited or not available in LA. Only few reports have documented in this field during the last forty years and Brazil leads the list, including countries in South America and Mexico within Central America region and Caribbean islands. From 1979 to 2015, 16 outbreaks of waterborne-protozoa, were reported in Latin American countries. T. gondii and C. cayetanensis were the protozoa, which caused more outbreaks and Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. were the most frequently found protozoa in water samples. On the other hand, Latin America countries have not got a coherent methodology for detection of protozoa in water samples despite whole LA is highly vulnerable to extreme weather events related to waterborne-infections; although Brazil and Colombia have some implemented laws in their surveillance systems. It would be important to coordinate all surveillance systems in between all countries for early detection and measures against waterborne-protozoan and to establish effective and suitable diagnosis tools according to the country's economic strength and particular needs.

Detection of Giardia duodenalis assemblage E infections at the Tibetan Plateau Area: Yaks are suitable hosts.

The prevalence of Giardia duodenalis (G. duodenalis) assemblages in yaks is poorly known. The present study examined 297 fecal samples from weaned yak, 4-7 months of age, from 3 different farms, in Tibetan Plateau Area (TPA) of the Qinghai Province in Western China. The prevalence of infection was determined by light and immunofluorescence microscopy, and nested-PCR. PCR was performed for the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU) amplified 16 positive for G. duodenalis products. The prevalence of Giardia species was 5.0% (15/297) on light microscopic analysis, 6.1% (18/297) on immunofluorescence test (IFT) and 5.4% (16/297) on nested-PCR. The overall prevalence with the three methods was 5.5%. Ten of the 16 PCR products have been successfully sequenced. Sequence results and phylogenetic analysis of the 18S rRNA sequence data using MEGA5.0 and DNAstar7.0 identified all samples of interest as G. duodenalis assemblage E. This study revealed for the first time the presence of G. duodenalis in yaks from the Qinghai province in China and confirmed that yak is a suitable host for Giardia parasites. The results provide useful information about G. duodenalis prevalence and the epidemiological significance of yak a suitable host to harbor Giardia infections.

Detection of Acanthamoeba spp. in water samples collected from natural water reservoirs, sewages, and pharmaceutical factory drains using LAMP and PCR in China.

Various species of amoebas belonging to the genus Acanthamoeba are widely distributed in many parts of the world. Some strains of these protozoans may exist as parasites and pose risks to human health as causative agents of serious human diseases. Currently in China there is a lack of information about the distribution of Acanthamoeba strains in the environment. Accordingly, 261 environmental water samples taken from rivers, sewage, and pharmaceutical factory drains were collected in Qinghai Province, China. The material was filtered and then analysed with both LAMP and PCR assays. Of the samples examined, Acanthamoeba DNA was found in 32 (14.68%) samples with the use of LAMP; in 13 of these samples, DNA from this amoeba was also detected using PCR. Sequencing of selected positive samples confirmed that the PCR products were fragments of the Acanthamoeba 18S rRNA gene and that isolates represent the T4 genotype, known as the most common strain related to AK cases. The results indicate that surface water, as well as water taken from sewage and pharmaceutical drains, may be a source of acanthamoebic strains potentially pathogenic for humans in China. It has been also demonstrated that LAMP assays is more sensitive than PCR and can be regarded as useful tool for screening the environment for Acanthamoeba spp.

Malaria vaccine development and how external forces shape it: an overview.

The aim of this paper is to analyse the current status and scientific value of malaria vaccine approaches and to provide a realistic prognosis for future developments. We systematically review previous approaches to malaria vaccination, address how vaccine efforts have developed, how this issue may be fixed, and how external forces shape vaccine development. Our analysis provides significant information on the various aspects and on the external factors that shape malaria vaccine development and reveal the importance of vaccine development in our society.

Detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in agricultural and water environments in the Qinghai area of China by IFT and PCR.

Qinghai Province in northwest China is strongly influenced by agricultural activities and is an important source of food and drinking water. Here, we present findings regarding the occurrence and molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium and Giardia species based on a large-scale investigation of areas of Qinghai Province. The diagnosis and molecular detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts was carried out using immunofluorescence microscopy (IFT), whereas nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in fecal smears and water samples was used for the detection and molecular characterization of the species. In total, 561 samples (260 water samples and 301 fecal samples from animals) were collected and analyzed. Of the 260 water samples, 66 samples were Cryptosporidium-positive by IFT and 71 samples were positive by nested PCR; in addition, 39 samples were Giardia-positive by IFT and 40 samples were positive by nested PCR. Of the 301 fecal samples from animals, 98 samples were Cryptosporidium-positive by IFT and 61 samples were positive by nested PCR, whereas 52 samples were Giardia-positive by IFT and 31 samples were positive by nested PCR. We showed that the water supplies and animals investigated contained Cryptosporidium and Giardia (oo)cysts. Thus, we recommend that the Chinese Government and Chinese health authorities undertake control measures to protect the food and drinking water sources in Qinghai from these pathogenic protozoa.