Husbandry practices associated with extensification in European pig production and their effects on pork quality.

This review has been developed as part of the mEATquality project with the main objective to examine the types of extensification practices used in European pig husbandry and their effect on intrinsic meat quality. Literature search has resulted in 679 references in total, from which 53 showed a strict compliance with the goals of this review: 1) the use of local European breeds and their crossbreds (22 papers); 2) addition of forage to diet (9 papers); 3) increased space allowance (3 papers); 4) enrichment of environment (19 papers). The evaluation of selected extensification factors showed that not all of them have a clear impact on meat quality, and are often confounded. The most clear differences were observed when comparing autochthonous with commercial breeds, and systems with access to pastures or woodlands vs. indoor housing. Despite many studies focusing on the extensification of husbandry practices, some of the factors cannot be confirmed to have a direct effect on pork intrinsic quality.

Phytase Supplementation of Growing-Finishing Pig Diets with Extruded Soya Seeds and Rapeseed Meal Improves Bone Mineralization and Carcass and Meat Quality.

The aim of this study was to determine how different doses of phytase in diets with extruded soybean seeds and rapeseed meal affected pigs' growth performance, meat quality, bone mineralization, and fatty acid profiles. Sixty pigs were divided into three treatments by sex and body mass. Pigs were divided into starter (25 days), grower (36 days), and finisher (33 days) periods and fed with mash diets. No phytase was used in the control group diet, whereas in Phy1 and Phy2, 100 g and 400 g of phytase per ton of mixture were used, respectively. The feed conversion ratio and meat color were significantly correlated with phytase. Phytase supplementation had no effect on the growth of pigs, but total phosphorus was significantly increased in the bones and meat of the pigs. The enzyme additive reduced the C22:4 n-6 acid content in the meat, whereas other results were not significantly affected. The data suggest that the addition of phytase at a dosage of 100 g/ton to diets with extruded full-fat soya seeds and rapeseed meal can be valuable, as it reduces the FCR and increases the P content in the meat and bones.

Microbial Phytase in a Diet with Lupine and Extruded Full-Fat Soya Seeds Affects the Performance, Carcass Characteristics, Meat Quality, and Bone Mineralization of Fatteners.

This study aims to determine how different doses of phytase in diets including extruded soya and lupine seeds affect fatteners' performance, meat quality, bone mineralization, and fatty acid profile. Sixty pigs were divided into three treatment groups. The control group was offered a diet without phytase, whereas the Phy100 and Phy400 groups were provided with 100 g and 400 g of phytase per ton of their diet, respectively. The animals from both experimental groups were characterized by a significantly (p < 0.05) higher body weight gain and lower feed efficiency in the starter period than the control group. Unfortunately, their meat had lower (p < 0.05) fat content, gluteal muscle thickness, and water-holding capacity. In the meat, a higher phosphorus content (p < 0.05) was found, and in the bones, a higher calcium (for Phy400) content was found when phytase was added to the pigs' diet. The pigs from the Phy100 group tended to have higher mean backfat thickness and C18:2 n-6 content in their fat, but lower C22:5 n-3 content, than the other groups. A higher dosage of phytase is not necessary for the diets of fatteners with extruded full-fat soya and lupin seeds.

The Effects of Protease Supplementation and Faba Bean Extrusion on Growth, Gastrointestinal Tract Physiology and Selected Blood Indices of Weaned Pigs.

The aim of the study was to investigate how the extrusion of faba bean seeds (var. Albus) and/or the addition of protease to pigs' diets affected the animals' growth parameters, digestibility of nutrients, selected physiological parameters of the digestive tract, and biochemical blood parameters. A 28-day experiment was conducted on 32 pigs weighing 9 ± 0.2 kg. The animals were allocated to four treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement with the main effects of extrusion (raw or extruded) and effects of protease supplementation (0 and 0.05%). Extrusion reduced the levels of neutral detergent fibre, trypsin inhibitor, phytate-P, and resistant starch but did not improve the digestibility of protein and dry matter in faba bean seeds. The pigs' growth performance, ileal digestibility, enzyme activity, and morphometric parameters of the ileum were not significantly affected by extrusion, except for a higher feed intake between the 15th and 28th day of the experiment. The protease supplementation gave comparable results as the diet without protease, except the feed conversion ratio (in the periods of 15-28th day and 0-28th day), which was higher than in the groups without protease. The extrusion and protease increased acetate and acetoacetate contents in the cecal digesta, but propionate, butyrate, and isovalerate concentrations in the digesta of the pigs in this group were lower. Thanks to protease supplementation, protein and oil levels in the diet were reduced, which cut the cost of feed mixtures. The extrusion and protease additive combined together did not improve the pigs' growth performance in this experiment.

The Shape of the Nasal Cavity and Adaptations to Sniffing in the Dog (Canis familiaris) Compared to Other Domesticated Mammals: A Review Article.

Dogs are a good starting point for the description and anatomical analysis of turbinates of the nose. This work aimed at summing up the state of knowledge on the shape of the nasal cavity and airflow in these domestic animals and dealt with the brachycephalic syndrome (BOAS) and anatomical changes in the initial airway area in dogs with a short and widened skull. As a result of artificial selection and breeding concepts, the dog population grew very quickly. Modern dog breeds are characterized by a great variety of their anatomical shape. Craniological changes also had a significant impact on the structure and physiology of the respiratory system in mammals. The shape of the nasal cavity is particularly distinctive in dogs. Numerous studies have established that dogs and their olfactory ability are of great importance in searching for lost people, detecting explosives or drugs as well as signaling disease in the human body. The manuscript describes the structure of the initial part of the respiratory system, including the nasal turbinates, and compares representatives of various animal species. It provides information on the anatomy of brachycephalic dogs and BOAS. The studies suggest that further characterization and studies of nasal turbinates and their hypertrophy are important.

The Effect of Yeast Fermentation of Two Lupine Species on the Digestibility of Protein and Amino Acids, Microflora Composition and Metabolites Production in the Ileum of Growing Pigs.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of raw and Candida utilis-fermented yellow (YL) and narrow-leaved lupine (NL) seeds on the apparent ileal digestibility coefficients (AID) of protein and amino acids in pigs and the metabolic activity of their intestinal microflora. Five cross-bred castrated 25-kg barrows were surgically fitted with a T-cannula in the distal ileum and housed individually in metabolic cages. They were fed five semi-synthetic diets containing only one source of protein: soybean meal (SBM), raw or fermented yellow lupine seeds (RYL or FYL), raw or fermented narrow-leaved lupine seeds (RNL or FNL). The study period consisted of six-day adaptation to the diet and one-day collection of digesta, which was sampled for microbial and chemical analyses. The AID coefficients of protein and amino acids were calculated with the marker method with TiO2. One-way (feed effect) and two-way (variety effect, fermentation effect) analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Duncan's test at p < 0.05 were applied. The digesta from the SBM and FNL variants had significantly higher (p < 0.05) AID coefficients of protein, asparagine, threonine, serine, isoleucine, leucine, histidine, and tyrosine, whereas the SBM variant was characterized by the lowest AID of cystine and the highest AID of alanine and methionine (p < 0.05). The ileal digesta of the pigs fed with FYL contained more bacteria, whereas the count of yeast was higher in the FNL variant. The digesta of the pigs from the FNL and RYL variants had the highest count of moulds (p < 0.05), whereas the digesta in the FYL, SBM, and RNL variants had almost no moulds at all. The ileal dry matter content was significantly lower in SBM group. The lowest pH was noted in the RYL variant (p < 0.05). The content of ammonia and total volatile fatty acids in the ileal digesta of the SBM variant was the lowest (p < 0.05). Fermentation significantly improved the AID of protein, asparagine, threonine, tyrosine, histidine, and arginine, increased the counts of total bacteria and yeast, the pH value, and isobutyrate and isovalerate concentrations, but decreased the dry matter and ammonia content (p < 0.05). The digesta of the NL variants was characterized by higher AID of asparagine, threonine, serine, alanine, valine, isoleucine, and arginine, and higher counts of LAB and moulds but lower total bacteria count than in the YL variants. The ileal pH was lower in the YL variants, where higher isobutyrate and butyrate concentrations (p < 0.05) were observed. To sum up, fermentation increased the counts of the ileal microbiota and improved the digestibility coefficients of protein and some amino acids. The narrow-leaved lupine seeds resulted in more positive changes in the digesta of growing pigs than yellow lupine.

Growth Performance, Gut Environment and Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Weaned Piglets Fed a Diet Supplemented with Raw and Fermented Narrow-Leafed Lupine Seeds.

The aim of this study was to: (1) provide controlled fermentation of narrow-leafed lupine seeds; (2) monitor seed composition, and (3) determine the influence of fermentation on the performance, gut environment and physiology, and selected blood metabolic parameters, in young pigs. Firstly, the effect of 24 h lupine seed fermentation by bacteria and yeast on seed chemical composition was determined. It increased contents of crude protein, crude fiber and ash, but reduced nitrogen-free extractive levels. The amino acid profile of fermented lupine (FL) was similar to that of raw lupine (RL) seeds, whereas the contents of oligosaccharides and P-phytate decreased significantly, in contrast to alkaloids. In fermented feed, pH dropped from 5.5 to 3.9. In the 28-day experiment, 24 male pigs were divided into three groups. The control group was fed a soybean meal diet (SBM), whereas in the experimental diets, 50% of SBM protein was replaced by RL or FL. Afterwards, eight pigs from each group were euthanized and their digesta and blood samples were collected. The FL use did not affect pigs' performance, nor their metabolic, microbial and most gastrointestinal tract parameters, but influenced crypt depth. Fermentation affected concentrations of short chain fatty acids and p-cresole in the proximal colon segment. In the small intestine, the levels of acetate and butyrate decreased, and, in the caecum, the propionate level decreased. Fermentation significantly lowered the pH of the middle colon digesta and ammonia contents compared to RL. A part of SBM may be successfully replaced by RL and FL in young pigs' diets.

A Comparison of the Composition and Contamination of Soybean Cultivated in Europe and Limitation of Raw Soy Seed Content in Weaned Pigs' Diets.

The aim of this study was to compare the chemical composition of European soy seeds. A mycological and toxigenic screening was carried out on 18 varieties of soy seeds harvested in Poland. Moreover, the level of soybean meal (SBM) substitution by raw soybean seeds was analysed in terms of its effect on young pigs' performance (body weight gain, feed intake, feed utilisation) along with apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of dry matter and crude protein in the diets. In a 28-day trial, 48 male pigs were tested using a marker method with TiO2. In their diets, SBM was replaced by soy seeds in the amounts of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25%. In the last 3 days of the experiment, samples of excreta from each animal separately were collected three times per day. The chemical composition of soybean seeds differed in terms of their contents of crude protein, ether extract, neutral detergent fibre and raffinose family oligosaccharides, as well as the trypsin inhibitor activity. Seeds were also contaminated with fungi, yeast and mycotoxins, mainly zearalenone and deoxynivalenol. The ATTD of crude protein ranged from 70.6% to 77.6% and that of dry matter from 93.5% to 94.6%, with no differences between the groups being found (p > 0.05). Pigs' performance parameters were reduced strongly with increasing amounts of raw seeds in the diets (p < 0.05). The results indicate that only a 5% addition of raw soy seeds in pigs' diet is recommended.

Effect of Phytase Derived from the E. coli AppA Gene on Weaned Piglet Performance, Apparent Total Tract Digestibility and Bone Mineralization.

The objective of this study was to assess the effect of novel appAT1 and appAT2 phytase inclusion at 250 phytase units (FTU)/kg on weaned piglet performance, the apparent total tract digestibility of P and Ca, and bone mineralization. Piglets (48 males) were randomly divided into four treatment groups: a positive control (PC), with recommended levels of phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca), a negative control (NC) deficient in P and Ca, and two experimental groups with NC diets supplemented with phytase derived from the appA gene of Escherichia coli. Diets fed in a mashed form were divided into prestarter (0-21 days) and starter (22-42 days) periods. During the whole period of the study, the experimental diets improved (p < 0.05) the body weight gain (BWG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) compared to the NC diet. The apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of the dry matter and crude protein was not significantly different among the diets. Phytase-supplemented diets improved the ATTD of P (p < 0.05) and the ATTD of Ca (p < 0.05). Bone ash content in the third metacarpal and P and Ca content were improved among the phytase supplemented diets compared to the NC diet.

The effect of eubiotic feed additives on the performance of growing pigs and the activity of intestinal microflora.

The aim of this study was to compare the effect of probiotic bacteria, prebiotics, phytobiotics and their combinations on performance and microbial activity in the digestive tract of growing pigs. The experiment was conducted over 28 d on 48 male pigs of about 12 kg body weight (BW), which were allocated to following treatments.: (1) Control Group (Con) without additive, (2) Group I, addition of a prebiotic (inulin), (3) Group Ph, a phytobiotic (herbal water extracts), (4) Group P, a probiotic composed of four strains of lactic acid bacteria, (5) Group PhP, phytobiotic and probiotic bacteria and (6) Group PhPI, a phytobiotic, probiotic bacteria and a prebiotic. Animal performance was recorded and at d 28 six pigs from each group were euthanised to collect digesta samples. In all groups except for Group I, diarrhoea incidents were observed. Groups Ph and P had significantly higher daily gains and final BW, and Group Ph utilised feed better than other groups. The pH of ileal digesta was significantly lower in Group PhPI. In the caecal digesta of Groups I, P and PhP, the pH level was lower than in the other groups but dry matter contents was significantly higher in Groups Con and I. The short-chain fatty acids and particular acid content differed significantly only in the colonic digesta. The yeast and mould numbers in caecal digesta was highest in Group Con. No treatment effects were observed for the number of lactic acid bacteria, coli group bacteria or Clostridium. However, the observed significantly higher number of total bacteria suggests that a multi-component eubiotic treatment changes the bacterial composition and distribution more effectively. Our findings indicated that all used additives changed the intestinal microflora, but the multi-component eubiotics were not beneficial as feed additives offered separately. Moreover, supplementation of phytobiotics and probiotic bacteria also improved the animal performance significantly.

The influence of narrow-leafed lupin seed fermentation on their chemical composition and ileal digestibility and microbiota in growing pigs.

The aims of this study were to provide a controlled fermentation process of blue lupin seeds (Lupinus angustifolius, cv. Neptun), monitor the changes in seed composition and determine the influence of the fermentation on the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of crude protein (CP) and amino acids in growing pigs, compared with raw lupin seeds. The fermentation with bacteria and yeast was conducted for 24 h at 25ºC under aerobic conditions. Seed fermentation increased the contents of CP, fibre, fat and ash and most of the analysed amino acids but reduced the levels of the nitrogen-free extractives. Furthermore, fermentation decreased the contents of raffinose family oligosaccharides and phytic acids but increased the alkaloid content. The AID was estimated on three barrows (mean initial body weight 25 kg), surgically fitted with a T-cannula in the distal ileum. The pigs received three diets, each for 6 d, within three experimental periods (3 × 3 Latin Square design). The diets contained soybean meal (Group SBM), raw lupin seeds (Group RL) or fermented lupin seeds (Group FL) as solely protein sources. Fermentation had a positive impact on the AID of CP and methionine, cysteine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine and valine (p < 0.05). Feeding raw or fermented lupin seeds did not affect the microbial status of the ileal digesta. Moreover, ammonia content in the caecal digesta did not differ between Groups RL and FL, although it was significantly higher than in Group SBM. It can be concluded that the fermentation process modified the chemical composition of nutrients in seeds, which can influence the digestibility and utilisation of the fermentation product in animal diets compared to raw seeds.

The Effect of Dry Yeast Fermentation on Chemical Composition and Protein Characteristics of Blue Lupin Seeds.

The effect of 24-hour fermentation of lupin seeds by different yeast strains on their chemical composition was determined. After fermentation, the mass fraction of proteins increased and their in vitro digestibility and biological activity significantly improved. The amino acid profile of fermented products was similar to that of raw lupin seeds. The significant reduction in the mass fraction of oligosaccharides and phytate, but not of alkaloids was found. The pH level of fermented products decreased as a consequence of the increase of lactic and propionic acid mass fractions. The most favourable changes in the chemical composition of blue lupin seeds were obtained in fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae baker's yeast and Fermivin 7013 strain.

The nutritional value of narrow-leafed lupine (Lupinus angustifolius) for fattening pigs.

The aim of this study was to determine the nutrient digestibility of seeds of four varieties of narrow-leafed lupines (Lupinus angustifolius) and the possibility of soya bean meal (SBM) substitution by lupine seeds alone and in combination with rapeseed meal (RSM) in the diets of pigs. The seeds of the lupine varieties Kalif, Sonet, Zeus and Boruta were analysed. The apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) was determined on 50 cross-bred pigs using the difference method with titanium dioxide as a marker. The substitution of SBM by lupine seeds alone (at 0 - 100%) was tested on 60 pigs (20-105 kg body weight (BW)) and by a combination of lupine seeds and RSM on 180 fattening pigs (35-80 kg BW). The chemical composition of lupine seeds differed considerably, especially in terms of crude protein and mineral content. All seeds contained less than 0.05% alkaloids and 9.3% oligosaccharides in dry matter. The ATTD of protein ranged from 70% to 74%, those of ether extract from 36% to 55% and those of gross energy from 77% to 84%. The entire replacement of SBM by lupine seeds (var. Sonet) did not have a negative effect on the performance of grower and fattener pigs. The substitution of SBM by a combination of lupines and RSM reduced the performance of growing and finishing pigs significantly.

The Nutritional Value and Physiological Properties of Diets with Raw and Candida utilis-Fermented Lupin Seeds in Rats.

The growth and physiological responses of the rats to diet supplemented with raw and Candida utilis-fermented yellow and blue lupin seeds were determined. The diets containing soya bean meal, raw and fermented blue and yellow lupin were administered to eight rats in each diet group for four weeks. Yellow lupin seeds in the diets of rats improved significantly (p<0.05) feed intake, protein digestibility, body mass gain and protein efficiency ratio in comparison with blue lupin seeds. On the contrary, blue lupin seeds affected significantly (p<0.05) gastrointestinal fermentation processes in comparison with yellow lupin seeds. Fermentation of lupin seeds increased crude protein content and reduced phytate and oligosaccharide content. In the fermented products, a higher number of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts but reduced number of coliform bacteria was found. Fermentation by Candida utilis positively (p<0.05) affected protein digestibility of feed, body mass gain and protein efficiency ratio of rats, as well as the activity of some bacterial enzymes and cholesterol concentrations in the blood serum.