A Community-Based Participatory Research Approach to Hurricane Katrina: When Disasters, Environmental Health Threats, and Disparities Collide.

In 2005, Hurricane Katrina resulted in long-term flooding of 80% of New Orleans, Louisiana. Mold-infested homes gave rise to concerns about increased childhood asthma. To address these concerns, a diverse community-academic partnership used a community-based participatory research (CBPR) approach to implement the Head-off Environmental Asthma in Louisiana (HEAL) study in 2007.The study examined the relationship between post-Katrina mold and other environmental exposures and asthma morbidity, while testing an asthma counselor (AC) intervention. Both the AC intervention and the CBPR approach were effectively implemented in the postdisaster setting. However, homes had lower levels of mold and other allergens than expected, possibly because of the timing of environmental sampling. Also, HEAL illustrated the vulnerability of the study community, especially to the interconnected threats of health disparities, environmental health stressors, and disasters.We examine the implications of these threats for public health science, policy, and practice, not only through the lens of Hurricane Katrina but also for future disasters faced by communities in the Gulf Coast and nationally.

Effectiveness of Evidence-Based Asthma Interventions.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Researchers often struggle with the gap between efficacy and effectiveness in clinical research. To bridge this gap, the Community Healthcare for Asthma Management and Prevention of Symptoms (CHAMPS) study adapted an efficacious, randomized controlled trial that resulted in evidence-based asthma interventions in community health centers. METHODS: Children (aged 5-12 years; N = 590) with moderate to severe asthma were enrolled from 3 intervention and 3 geographically/capacity-matched control sites in high-risk, low-income communities located in Arizona, Michigan, and Puerto Rico. The asthma intervention was tailored to the participant's allergen sensitivity and exposure, and it comprised 4 visits over the course of 1 year. Study visits were documented and monitored prospectively via electronic data capture. Asthma symptoms and health care utilization were evaluated at baseline, and at 6 and 12 months. RESULTS: A total of 314 intervention children and 276 control children were enrolled in the study. Allergen sensitivity testing (96%) and home environmental assessments (89%) were performed on the majority of intervention children. Overall study activity completion (eg, intervention visits, clinical assessments) was 70%. Overall and individual site participant symptom days in the previous 4 weeks were significantly reduced compared with control findings (control, change of -2.28; intervention, change of -3.27; difference, -0.99; P < .001), and this result was consistent with changes found in the rigorous evidence-based interventions. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence-based interventions can be successfully adapted into primary care settings that serve impoverished, high-risk populations, reducing the morbidity of asthma in these high-need populations.

NIAID, NIEHS, NHLBI, and MCAN Workshop Report: The indoor environment and childhood asthma-implications for home environmental intervention in asthma prevention and management.

Environmental exposures have been recognized as critical in the initiation and exacerbation of asthma, one of the most common chronic childhood diseases. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; and Merck Childhood Asthma Network sponsored a joint workshop to discuss the current state of science with respect to the indoor environment and its effects on the development and morbidity of childhood asthma. The workshop included US and international experts with backgrounds in allergy/allergens, immunology, asthma, environmental health, environmental exposures and pollutants, epidemiology, public health, and bioinformatics. Workshop participants provided new insights into the biologic properties of indoor exposures, indoor exposure assessment, and exposure reduction techniques. This informed a primary focus of the workshop: to critically review trials and research relevant to the prevention or control of asthma through environmental intervention. The participants identified important limitations and gaps in scientific methodologies and knowledge and proposed and prioritized areas for future research. The group reviewed socioeconomic and structural challenges to changing environmental exposure and offered recommendations for creative study design to overcome these challenges in trials to improve asthma management. The recommendations of this workshop can serve as guidance for future research in the study of the indoor environment and on environmental interventions as they pertain to the prevention and management of asthma and airway allergies.

From Design to Dissemination: Implementing Community-Based Participatory Research in Postdisaster Communities.

OBJECTIVES: To review how disasters introduce unique challenges to conducting population-based research and community-based participatory research (CBPR). METHODS: From 2007-2009, we conducted the Head-off Environmental Asthma in Louisiana (HEAL) Study in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in a Gulf Coast community facing an unprecedented triple burden: Katrina's and other disasters' impact on the environment and health, historic health disparities, and persistent environmental health threats. RESULTS: The unique triple burden influenced every research component; still, most existing CBPR principles were applicable, even though full adherence was not always feasible and additional tailored principles govern postdisaster settings. CONCLUSIONS: Even in the most challenging postdisaster conditions, CBPR can be successfully designed, implemented, and disseminated while adhering to scientific rigor.

Adapting and implementing an evidence-based asthma counseling intervention for resource-poor populations.

OBJECTIVE: To report implementation strategies and outcomes of an evidence-based asthma counseling intervention. The Head-off Environmental Asthma in Louisiana (HEAL) intervention integrated asthma counseling (AC) capacity and addressed challenges facing children with asthma in post-disaster New Orleans. METHODS: The HEAL intervention enrolled 182 children (4-12 years) with moderate-to-severe persistent asthma. Recruitment occurred from schools in the Greater New Orleans area for one year. Participants received home environmental assessments and tailored asthma counseling sessions during the study period based on the National Cooperative Inner City Asthma Study and the Inner City Asthma Study. Primary (i.e., asthma symptoms) and secondary outcomes (i.e., healthcare utilization) were captured. During the study, changes were made to meet the demands of a post-hurricane and resource-poor environment which included changes to staffing, training, AC tools, and AC sessions. RESULTS: After study changes were made, the AC visit rate increased by 92.3%. Significant improvements were observed across several adherence measures (e.g., running out of medications (p = 0.009), financial/insurance problems for appointments (p = 0.006), worried about medication side-effects (p = 0.01), felt medications did not work (p < 0.001)). Additionally, an increasing number of AC visits was modestly associated with a greater reduction in symptoms (test-for-trend p = 0.059). CONCLUSION: By adapting to the needs of the study population and setting, investigators successfully implemented a counseling intervention that improved participant behaviors and clinical outcomes. The strategies for implementing the AC intervention may serve as a guide for managing asthma and other chronic conditions in resource-poor settings.

Athletic equipment microbiota are shaped by interactions with human skin.

BACKGROUND: Americans spend the vast majority of their lives in built environments. Even traditionally outdoor pursuits, such as exercising, are often now performed indoors. Bacteria that colonize these indoor ecosystems are primarily derived from the human microbiome. The modes of human interaction with indoor surfaces and the physical conditions associated with each surface type determine the steady-state ecology of the microbial community. RESULTS: Bacterial assemblages associated with different surfaces in three athletic facilities, including floors, mats, benches, free weights, and elliptical handles, were sampled every other hour (8 am to 6 pm) for 2 days. Surface and equipment type had a stronger influence on bacterial community composition than the facility in which they were housed. Surfaces that were primarily in contact with human skin exhibited highly dynamic bacterial community composition and non-random co-occurrence patterns, suggesting that different host microbiomes-shaped by selective forces-were being deposited on these surfaces through time. However, bacterial assemblages found on the floors and mats changed less over time, and species co-occurrence patterns appeared random, suggesting more neutral community assembly. CONCLUSIONS: These longitudinal patterns highlight the dramatic turnover of microbial communities on surfaces in regular contact with human skin. By uncovering these longitudinal patterns, this study promotes a better understanding of microbe-human interactions within the built environment.

Understanding cultivar-specificity and soil determinants of the cannabis microbiome.

Understanding microbial partnerships with the medicinally and economically important crop Cannabis has the potential to affect agricultural practice by improving plant fitness and production yield. Furthermore, Cannabis presents an interesting model to explore plant-microbiome interactions as it produces numerous secondary metabolic compounds. Here we present the first description of the endorhiza-, rhizosphere-, and bulk soil-associated microbiome of five distinct Cannabis cultivars. Bacterial communities of the endorhiza showed significant cultivar-specificity. When controlling cultivar and soil type the microbial community structure was significantly different between plant cultivars, soil types, and between the endorhiza, rhizosphere and soil. The influence of soil type, plant cultivar and sample type differentiation on the microbial community structure provides support for a previously published two-tier selection model, whereby community composition across sample types is determined mainly by soil type, while community structure within endorhiza samples is determined mainly by host cultivar.

Development of cockroach immunotherapy by the Inner-City Asthma Consortium.

BACKGROUND: Cockroach allergy is a key contributor to asthma morbidity in children living in urban environments. OBJECTIVE: We sought to document immune responses to cockroach allergen and provide direction for the development of immunotherapy for cockroach allergy. METHODS: Four pilot studies were conducted: (1) an open-label study to assess the safety of cockroach sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) in adults and children; (2) a randomized, double-blind biomarker study of cockroach SLIT versus placebo in adults; (3) a randomized, double-blind biomarker study of 2 doses of cockroach SLIT versus placebo in children; and (4) an open-label safety and biomarker study of cockroach subcutaneous immunotherapy (SCIT) in adults. RESULTS: The adult SLIT trial (n = 54; age, 18-54 years) found a significantly greater increase in cockroach-specific IgE levels between the active and placebo groups (geometric mean ratio, 1.92; P < .0001) and a trend toward increased cockroach-specific IgG4 levels in actively treated subjects (P = .09) but no evidence of functional blocking antibody response. The pediatric SLIT trial (n = 99; age, 5-17 years) found significant differences in IgE, IgG, and IgG4 responses between both active groups and the placebo group but no consistent differences between the high- and low-dose groups. In the SCIT study the treatment resulted in significant changes from baseline in cockroach IgE, IgG4, and blocking antibody levels. The safety profile of cockroach immunotherapy was reassuring in all studies. CONCLUSIONS: The administration of cockroach allergen by means of SCIT is immunologically more active than SLIT, especially with regard to IgG4 levels and blocking antibody responses. No safety concerns were raised in any age group. These pilot studies suggest that immunotherapy with cockroach allergen is more likely to be effective with SCIT.

Investigating the impact of storage conditions on microbial community composition in soil samples.

Recent advances in DNA sequencing technologies have allowed scientists to probe increasingly complex biological systems, including the diversity of bacteria in the environment. However, despite a multitude of recent studies incorporating these methods, many questions regarding how environmental samples should be collected and stored still persist. Here, we assess the impact of different soil storage conditions on microbial community composition using Illumina-based 16S rRNA V4 amplicon sequencing. Both storage time and temperature affected bacterial community composition and structure. Frozen samples maintained the highest alpha diversity and differed least in beta diversity, suggesting the utility of cold storage for maintaining consistent communities. Samples stored for intermediate times (three and seven days) had both the highest alpha diversity and the largest differences in overall beta diversity, showing the degree of community change after sample collection. These divergences notwithstanding, differences in neither storage time nor storage temperature substantially altered overall communities relative to more than 500 previously examined soil samples. These results systematically support previous studies and stress the importance of methodological consistency for accurate characterization and comparison of soil microbiological assemblages.

Pilates exercise or stationary cycling for chronic nonspecific low back pain: does it matter? a randomized controlled trial with 6-month follow-up.

STUDY DESIGN: Randomized controlled trial. OBJECTIVE: This is the companion study to a previous publication that presented 8-week pain, disability, and trunk muscle motor control results. The objective of this study was to compare the effect of 8 weeks of specific trunk exercises and stationary cycling on outcomes measures of catastrophizing and fear-avoidance beliefs (FAB) in patients with chronic nonspecific low back pain, and provide 6-month outcome data for all self-report measures. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: It is thought that any form of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity is sufficient to address catastrophizing and FAB, and concomitant levels of pain and disability. METHODS: Sixty-four patients with low back pain were randomly assigned to 8 weeks of specific trunk exercise group (SEG), or stationary cycling group (CEG). Self-rated pain, disability, catastrophizing and FAB scores were collected before, immediately after (8 wk), and 6 months after the training program. Clinically meaningful improvements were defined as greater than a 30% reduction from baseline in pain and disability scores. "Intention-to-treat" principles were used for missing data. Per-protocol analysis was performed on participants who attended at least two-thirds of the exercise sessions. RESULTS: At 8 weeks, disability was significantly lower in the SEG compared with the CEG (d = 0.62, P = 0.018). Pain was reduced from baseline in both the groups after training (P < 0.05), but was lower for the SEG (P < 0.05). FAB scores were reduced in the SEG at 8 weeks, and in the CEG at 6 months. No between-group differences in FAB scores were observed. Similar reductions in catastrophizing in each group were observed at each time point. At 6 months, the overall data pattern suggested no long-term difference between groups. Per-protocol analysis of clinically meaningful improvements suggests no between-group differences for how many patients are likely to report improvement. CONCLUSION: Inferential statistics suggest greater improvements at 8 weeks, but not 6 months, for the SEG. Inspection of clinically meaningful changes based on a minimum level of adherence suggests no between-group differences. If a patient with low back pain adheres to either specific trunk exercises or stationary cycling, it is reasonable to think that similar improvements will be achieved. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 2.

Microbial hitchhikers on intercontinental dust: catching a lift in Chad.

Ancient mariners knew that dust whipped up from deserts by strong winds travelled long distances, including over oceans. Satellite remote sensing revealed major dust sources across the Sahara. Indeed, the Bodélé Depression in the Republic of Chad has been called the dustiest place on earth. We analysed desert sand from various locations in Chad and dust that had blown to the Cape Verde Islands. High throughput sequencing techniques combined with classical microbiological methods showed that the samples contained a large variety of microbes well adapted to the harsh desert conditions. The most abundant bacterial groupings in four different phyla included: (a) Firmicutes-Bacillaceae, (b) Actinobacteria-Geodermatophilaceae, Nocardiodaceae and Solirubrobacteraceae, (c) Proteobacteria-Oxalobacteraceae, Rhizobiales and Sphingomonadaceae, and (d) Bacteroidetes-Cytophagaceae. Ascomycota was the overwhelmingly dominant fungal group followed by Basidiomycota and traces of Chytridiomycota, Microsporidia and Glomeromycota. Two freshwater algae (Trebouxiophyceae) were isolated. Most predominant taxa are widely distributed land inhabitants that are common in soil and on the surfaces of plants. Examples include Bradyrhizobium spp. that nodulate and fix nitrogen in Acacia species, the predominant trees of the Sahara as well as Herbaspirillum (Oxalobacteraceae), a group of chemoorganotrophic free-living soil inhabitants that fix nitrogen in association with Gramineae roots. Few pathogenic strains were found, suggesting that African dust is not a large threat to public health.

Decreased pulmonary function measured in children exposed to high environmental relative moldiness index homes.

BACKGROUND: Exposures to water-damaged homes/buildings has been linked to deficits in respiratory health. However, accurately quantifying this linkage has been difficult because of the methods used to assess water damage and respiratory health. PURPOSE: The goal of this analysis was to determine the correlation between the water-damage, as defined by the Environmental Relative Moldiness Index (ERMI) value in an asthmatic child's home, and the child's pulmonary function measured by spirometry, "forced expiratory volume in one second, percent predicted" or FEV1%. METHODS: This analysis utilized data obtained from the "Heads-off Environmental Asthma in Louisiana" (HEAL) study. The children (n= 109), 6 to 12 years of age, who had completed at least one spirometry evaluation and a dust sample collected for ERMI analysis from the home at approximately the same time as the spirometry testing, were included in the analysis. Statistical evaluation of the correlation between ERMI values and FEV1% was performed using the Spearman's Rank Correlation analysis. The relationship between ERMI values and FEV1% was performed using B-spline regression. RESULTS: The average ERMI value in the HEAL study homes was 7.3. For homes with ERMI values between 2.5 and 15, there was a significant inverse correlation with the child's lung function or FEV1% measurement (Spearman's rho -0.23; p= 0.03), i.e. as the ERMI value increased, the FEV1% value decreased. CONCLUSIONS: Measures of water-damage (the ERMI) and clinical assessments of lung function (FEV1%) provided a quantitative assessment of the impact of water-damaged home exposures on children's respiratory health.

Development of a standardized approach for environmental microbiota investigations related to asthma development in children.

Standardized studies examining environmental microbial exposure in populations at risk for asthma are necessary to improve our understanding of the role this factor plays in disease development. Here we describe studies aimed at developing guidelines for high-resolution culture-independent microbiome profiling, using a phylogenetic microarray (PhyloChip), of house dust samples in a cohort collected as part of the NIH-funded Inner City Asthma Consortium (ICAC). We demonstrate that though extracted DNA concentrations varied across dust samples, the majority produced sufficient 16S rRNA to be profiled by the array. Comparison of array and 454-pyrosequencing performed in parallel on a subset of samples, illustrated that increasingly deeper sequencing efforts validated greater numbers of array-detected taxa. Community composition agreement across samples exhibited a hierarchy in concordance, with the highest level of agreement in replicate array profiles followed by samples collected from adjacent 1×1 m(2) sites in the same room, adjacent sites with different sized sampling quadrants (1×1 and 2×2 m(2)), different sites within homes (living and bedroom) to lowest in living room samples collected from different homes. The guidelines for sample collection and processing in this pilot study extend beyond PhyloChip based studies of house-associated microbiota, and bear relevance for other microbiome profiling approaches such as next-generation sequencing.

Specific trunk and general exercise elicit similar changes in anticipatory postural adjustments in patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial.

STUDY DESIGN: A randomized controlled trial. OBJECTIVE: To compare changes in self-rated disability, pain, and anticipatory postural adjustments between specific trunk exercise and general exercise in patients with chronic low back pain. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Chronic low back pain is associated with altered motor control of the trunk muscles. The best exercise to address altered motor control is unclear. METHODS: Sixty-four patients with chronic low back pain were randomly assigned to a specific trunk exercise group (SEG) that included skilled cognitive activation of the trunk muscles in addition to a number of other best practice exercises, whereas the general exercise group performed only seated cycling exercise. The training program lasted for 8 weeks. Self-rated disability and pain scores were collected before and after the training period. Electromyographic activity of various trunk muscles was recorded during performance of a rapid shoulder flexion task before and after training. Muscle onsets were calculated, and the latency time (in ms) between the onset of each trunk muscle and the anterior deltoid formed the basis of the motor control analysis. RESULTS: After training, disability was significantly lower in the SEG (d = 0.62, P = 0.018). Pain was reduced in both groups after training (P < 0.05), but was lower for the SEG (P < 0.05). Despite the general exercise group performing no specific trunk exercise, similar changes in trunk muscle onsets were observed in both groups after training. CONCLUSION: SEG elicited significant reductions in self-rated disability and pain, whereas similar between-group changes in trunk muscle onsets were observed. The motor control adaptation seems to reflect a strategy of improved coordination between the trunk muscles with the unilateral shoulder movement. Trunk muscle onsets during rapid limb movement do not seem to be a valid mechanism of action for specific trunk exercise rehabilitation programs.

Implementation of evidence-based asthma interventions in post-Katrina New Orleans: the Head-off Environmental Asthma in Louisiana (HEAL) study.

BACKGROUND: Childhood asthma morbidity and mortality in New Orleans, Louisiana, is among the highest in the nation. In August 2005, Hurricane Katrina created an environmental disaster that led to high levels of mold and other allergens and disrupted health care for children with asthma. OBJECTIVES: We implemented a unique hybrid asthma counselor and environmental intervention based on successful National Institutes of Health asthma interventions from the National Cooperative Inner City Asthma (NCICAS) and Inner-City Asthma (ICAS) Studies with the goal of reducing asthma symptoms in New Orleans children after Hurricane Katrina. METHODS: Children (4-12 years old) with moderate-to-severe asthma (n = 182) received asthma counseling and environmental intervention for approximately 1 year. HEAL was evaluated employing several analytical approaches including a pre-post evaluation of symptom changes over the entire year, an analysis of symptoms according to the timing of asthma counselor contact, and a comparison to previous evidence-based interventions. RESULTS: Asthma symptoms during the previous 2 weeks decreased from 6.5 days at enrollment to 3.6 days at the 12-month symptom assessment (a 45% reduction, p < 0.001), consistent with changes observed after NCICAS and ICAS interventions (35% and 62% reductions in symptom days, respectively). Children whose families had contact with a HEAL asthma counselor by 6 months showed a 4.09-day decrease [95% confidence interval (CI): 3.25 to 4.94-day decrease] in symptom days, compared with a 1.79-day decrease (95% CI: 0.90, 2.67) among those who had not yet seen an asthma counselor (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The novel combination of evidence-based asthma interventions was associated with improved asthma symptoms among children in post-Katrina New Orleans. Post-intervention changes in symptoms were consistent with previous randomized trials of NCICAS and ICAS interventions.

Indoor environmental exposures for children with asthma enrolled in the HEAL study, post-Katrina New Orleans.

BACKGROUND: Rain and flooding from Hurricane Katrina resulted in widespread growth of mold and bacteria and production of allergens in New Orleans, Louisiana, which may have led to increased exposures and morbidity in children with asthma. OBJECTIVES: The goal of the Head-off Environmental Asthma in Louisiana (HEAL) study was to characterize post-Katrina exposures to mold and allergens in children with asthma. METHODS: The homes of 182 children with asthma in New Orleans and surrounding parishes were evaluated by visual inspection, temperature and moisture measurements, and air and dust sampling. Air was collected using vacuum-pump spore traps and analyzed for > 30 mold taxa using bright field microscopy. Dust was collected from the children's beds and bedroom floors and analyzed for mouse (Mus m 1), dust mite (Der p 1), cockroach (Bla g 1), and mold (Alternaria mix) allergens using ELISA. RESULTS: More than half (62%) of the children were living in homes that had been damaged by rain, flooding, or both. Geometric mean indoor and outdoor airborne mold levels were 501 and 3,958 spores/m3, respectively. Alternaria antigen was detected in dust from 98% of homes, with 58% having concentrations > 10 µg/g. Mus m 1, Der p 1, and Bla g 1 were detected in 60%, 35%, and 20% of homes, respectively, at low mean concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: Except for Alternaria antigen in dust, concentrations of airborne mold (ratio of indoor to outdoor mold) and dust allergens in the homes of HEAL children were lower than measurements found in other studies, possibly because of extensive post-Katrina mold remediation and renovations, or because children moved into cleaner homes upon returning to New Orleans.

The Head-off Environmental Asthma in Louisiana (HEAL) study--methods and study population.

BACKGROUND: In the city of New Orleans, Louisiana, and surrounding parishes (NOLA), children with asthma were perilously impacted by Hurricane Katrina as a result of disrupted health care, high home mold and allergen levels, and high stress. OBJECTIVES: The Head-off Environmental Asthma in Louisiana (HEAL) study was conducted to examine relationships between the post-Katrina environment and childhood asthma in NOLA and assess a novel asthma counselor intervention that provided case management and guidance for reducing home mold and allergen levels. METHODS: Children (4-12 years old) with moderate-to-severe asthma were recruited from NOLA schools. Over 1 year, they received two clinical evaluations, three home environmental evaluations, and the asthma intervention. Quarterly end points included symptom days, medication use, and unscheduled emergency department or clinic visits. A community advisory group was assembled and informed HEAL at all phases. RESULTS: Of the children (n = 182) enrolled in HEAL, 67% were African American, and 25% came from households with annual incomes < $15,000. HEAL children were symptomatic, averaging 6.6 symptom days in the 2 weeks before baseline, and had frequent unscheduled visits to clinics or emergency departments (76% had at least one unscheduled visit in the preceding 3 months). In this report, we describe study design and baseline characteristics of HEAL children. CONCLUSIONS: Despite numerous challenges faced by investigators, study staff, and participants, including destroyed infrastructure, disrupted lives, and lost jobs, HEAL was successful in terms of recruitment and retention, the high quality of data collected that will provide insight into asthma-allergen relationships, and the asthma intervention. This success was attributable to using an adaptive approach and refining processes as needed.

The mentally ill and social exclusion: a critical examination of the use of seclusion from the patient's perspective.

Nurses in psychiatric settings have an important role to play in the application of seclusion, a measure that continues to be a frequently used intervention for the management of disturbing patient behaviours. Albeit a controversial measure, isolating patients remains a common institutional practice that has received widespread attention from a political, ethical, legal, and clinical standpoint. Although there is an abundance of scientific work on the subject, few studies have examined the experience of patients being confined. In order to improve the quality of nursing care surrounding this measure it appeared essential to obtain data on patients' perspectives, information deemed valuable in orienting nursing interventions. This qualitative study, guided by a phenomenological research design, aimed at describing and gaining a better understanding of patients with a severe and persistent psychiatric disorder who were placed in a seclusion room while hospitalized on a closed psychiatric unit. Using a semi-structured, non-directive interview format, a total of six patients participated in this study. Content analysis of participants' narratives yielded three main themes that appeared to be central to their experience of seclusion: their experience of seclusion on an emotional level, their perception of this intervention, and how they coped during their stay in the seclusion room. Major findings emerging from this nursing study centred on the following dimensions: patients' perceptions of seclusion as a punitive measure and a modality for social control and, the experience of seclusion serving as an intensification of already existing feelings of exclusion, rejection, abandonment, and isolation. In addition the findings also suggest that it is not seclusion per se that impacts on their negative perception and negative emotional experience but rather the lack of nurse-patient contact during the seclusion experience. Furthermore, whether patients coped by regressing, acting out, or taking on a more compliant stance, they appeared to be motivated by a need to connect with staff. This points to the importance of the relational aspects of nursing care when applying this restrictive measure. A need for modifying the institutional culture surrounding seclusion and transforming nursing practices are discussed as are future research endeavours.

Expression of the murine CB2 cannabinoid receptor using a recombinant Semliki Forest virus.

A recombinant Semliki Forest virus (SFV) RNA construct, SFV1-mCB(2) RNA, was employed for the high-level expression of the murine CB(2) (mCB(2)) cannabinoid receptor in baby hamster kidney cells. Biosynthetic radiolabel incorporation studies in concert with urea-sodium dodecylsulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (urea-SDS-PAGE) and western immunoblotting revealed that two major proteins of approximately 26 and 40kDa were produced by the construct. The 40kDa product, but not the 26kDa product, was glycosylated as determined by 2-deoxy-D-glucose incorporation and peptide-N-glycosidase F digestion analysis. Assessment of [3H]CP55940 ([3H]-(-)-cis-3-[2-hydroxy-4-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)phenyl]-trans-4-(3-hydroxypropyl)cyclohexanol) binding data for membranes of cells transfected with SFV1-mCB(2) RNA indicated a K(d) of 0.35+/-0.04nM and a B(max) of 24.4+/-2.7pmol/mg. A rank order of binding affinities for cannabinoids, which paralleled that reported for native mCB(2) receptors, was observed. The CB(2) receptor-specific antagonist SR144528 (N-[(1S)-endo-1,3,3-trimethyl bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-yl]-5-(4-chloro-3-methylphenyl)-1-(4-methylbenzyl)-pyrazole-3-carboxamide) blocked binding of [3H]CP55940, while the CB(1) receptor-specific antagonist SR141716A [N-(piperidin-1-yl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamide hydrochloride] had a minimal effect. These results indicate that the recombinant receptor expressed from SFV1-mCB(2) RNA exhibits properties, including ligand binding features, that are consistent with those for the native mCB(2) receptor. However, the presence of both 26 and 40kDa receptor species is consistent with alternative translation from two AUG start sites using the SFV1-mCB(2) RNA expression system.