Patterns of Children's Relationships With Parents and Teachers in Grade 1: Links to Task Persistence and Performance.

Our study aimed to investigate the patterns of children's relationships with their parents and teachers, the development of these relationships during Grade 1, and respective links to children's learning (in task persistence and performance). Parents of 350 children answered questionnaires about the quality of their relationships with their children; 25 teachers answered questions about children's task persistence at school and the quality of their relationships with their students; 350 children completed literacy and math performance tests; and six testers evaluated children's task persistence when completing those tests. All measures were administered twice: at the start and end of Grade 1. Latent profile analyses found two meaningful child profiles that were similar at the beginning and end of Grade 1: average relationship (89% at T1, 85% at T2) and conflictual relationship (11% at T1, 15% at T2) with parents and teachers. These profiles were highly stable throughout Grade 1, except for 15 children who moved from an average relationship to a conflictual relationship profile. This declining trajectory can be characterized by poor relationships with teachers and low task persistence at the end of Grade 1, although they did not perform any worse than other children. Finally, children exhibiting conflictual relationships with their parents and teachers at the beginning of Grade 1 performed worse on spelling and subtraction tasks and demonstrated lower task-persistent behavior at the end of Grade 1 than those with average (good) relationships with parents and teachers.

Unravelling the Parent-Child Contexts in Which Corporal Punishment Predicts Increases vs. Decreases in Children's Aggression.

OBJECTIVE: This study tested whether the longitudinal effects of mothers' and fathers' corporal punishment on children's aggression would vary depending on the context of the parent-child relationship (gender of the parent-child dyad, other parenting practices). METHOD: Participants were 325 children (Mage = 7.44 years, SD = .50) and their parents from Estonia who participated in a longitudinal study. Both mothers and fathers filled out measures of parenting practices in Grade 1 (corporal punishment, warmth, behavioral and psychological control). Teachers rated children's aggressive behavior in Grade 1 and 3. RESULTS: We found that the effects of both mothers' and fathers' corporal punishment on changes in children's aggressive behavior were conditional. In contexts that were characterized by a lack of parental warmth or overuse of behavioral control, corporal punishment was associated with increases in aggression; in parent-child relationships with high levels of parental affection or low levels of behavioral control, it was unrelated to, or associated with, decreases in aggression. Some of these conditional effects were specific to the gender of the parent and the child. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that we should try to better understand the complexities of different parent-child relationships that magnify vs. minimize the negative consequences of corporal punishment.

Is part-time special education beneficial for children at risk for reading difficulties? An example from Estonia.

This longitudinal quasi-experimental study examined the general efficiency of part-time special education for students at risk for reading difficulties in Estonian primary schools. Participants were selected from 464 students whose pre-reading and reading skills were assessed for the study at the beginning of school. Eighty-four of these children received part-time special education support throughout the first grade (treatment group). Statistical matching was used to find a control group similar to the treatment group on pre-reading skills and parental educational level but who did not receive extra help (control group; 84 children). Students' reading fluency and task persistence were assessed at the end of Grade 1 and Grade 2. Neither group differed in reading fluency nor task persistence at the end of either grade. Developmental trajectories of those treatment group children who received additional support only for reading and spelling difficulties did not differ from those who received this support for concurrent developmental disorders in addition to reading and spelling difficulties. Our findings indicate that a full-year of special education support in the form of extra lessons without a prior diagnostic assessment, frequent progress monitoring, or focused interventions might not be an effective way to support children with reading difficulties.

What role do comprehension-oriented learning strategies have in solving math calculation and word problems at the end of middle school?

BACKGROUND: Math is a difficult subject with which many upper middle-school students struggle. In addition to knowledge, skills, and motivation, effective learning strategies play an important role in learning math. AIMS: This study aimed to examine the effects of comprehension-oriented learning strategies (perceptual and abstract grouping of material) - together with math self-concept, task-persistent learning behaviour, earlier math skills, reasoning abilities, and reading comprehension - on solving mathematical calculation and word problems at the end of middle school. SAMPLE: The sample consisted of 231 students (50% boys; mean age in Grade 9 = 15.55 years) from 16 schools and 31 classrooms in Estonia. METHODS: Students were tested twice - once at the end of Grade 6 and once at the end of Grade 9. Calculation and problem-solving skills were assessed at both time points. Math self-concept, teacher-rated task persistence, reasoning abilities, and reading comprehension were assessed in Grade 6. Learning strategies were assessed using a word-memorization task in Grade 9. Multiple regression analysis was used. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Applying abstract (but not perceptual) grouping was related to higher calculation and problem-solving skills. Math skills were persistent over time, and calculation and problem-solving skills mutually affected each other. Math self-concept, task persistence, and reading comprehension had a positive effect on problem-solving but not calculation skills. The study noted deficient use of comprehension-oriented strategies at the end of middle school, suggesting that more attention should be paid to teaching and discussing such learning strategies. These findings suggest that students' math skills may be enhanced by supporting metacognitive awareness and use of comprehension-oriented learning strategies.

Teachers' Promotion or Inhibition of Children's Aggression Depends on Peer-Group Characteristics.

Researchers have increasingly started to pay attention to how contextual factors, such as the classroom peer context and the quality of student-teacher interactions, influence children's aggressive behavior. This longitudinal study was designed to examine the degree to which benefits and costs of different teaching practices (child-centered and child-dominated) would be dependent on the initial peer-group composition (aggregate levels of aggression and victimization at the beginning of first grade). Teachers provided ratings of aggression and victimization (N = 523 first-grade students; M age at the beginning of first grade = 7.49 years, SD = 0.52). Information about different teaching practices was obtained via observations. Our results show that whereas child-centered practices are beneficial in high-victimization classrooms, child-dominated practices inhibit the development of aggression in low-victimization classroom contexts. Our findings highlight the importance of moving beyond main-effect models to studying how different contextual influences interact to promote, or inhibit, the development of aggression.

Calculation and word problem-solving skills in primary grades - Impact of cognitive abilities and longitudinal interrelations with task-persistent behaviour.

BACKGROUND: Primary school math skills form a basis for academic success down the road. Different math skills have different antecedents and there is a reason to believe that more complex math tasks require better self-regulation. AIMS: The study aimed to investigate longitudinal interrelations of calculation and problem-solving skills, and task-persistent behaviour in Grade 1 and Grade 3, and the effect of non-verbal intelligence, linguistic abilities, and executive functioning on math skills and task persistence. SAMPLE: Participants were 864 students (52.3% boys) from 33 different schools in Estonia. METHODS: Students were tested twice - at the end of Grade1 and at the end of Grade 3. Calculation and problem-solving skills, and teacher-rated task-persistent behaviour were measured at both time points. Non-verbal intelligence, linguistic abilities, and executive functioning were measured in Grade 1. RESULTS: Cross-lagged structural equation modelling indicated that calculation skills depend on previous math skills and linguistic abilities, while problem-solving skills require also non-verbal intelligence, executive functioning, and task persistence. Task-persistent behaviour in Grade 3 was predicted by previous problem-solving skills, linguistic abilities, and executive functioning. Gender and mother's educational level were added as covariates. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that math skills and self-regulation are strongly related in primary grades and that solving complex tasks requires executive functioning and task persistence from children. Findings support the idea that instructional practices might benefit from supporting self-regulation in order to gain domain-specific, complex skill achievement.

Cultural universality and specificity of student engagement in school: The results of an international study from 12 countries.

BACKGROUND: A comprehensive understanding of the contextual factors that are linked to student engagement requires research that includes cross-cultural perspectives. AIMS: This study investigated how student engagement in school is associated with grade, gender, and contextual factors across 12 countries. It also investigated whether these associations vary across countries with different levels of individualism and socio-economic development. SAMPLES: The participants were 3,420 7th, 8th, and 9th grade students from Austria, Canada, China, Cyprus, Estonia, Greece, Malta, Portugal, Romania, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States. METHODS: The participants completed a questionnaire to report their engagement in school, the instructional practices they experienced, and the support they received from teachers, peers, and parents. Hierarchical linear modelling was used to examine the effects at both student and country levels. RESULTS: The results across countries revealed a decline in student engagement from Grade 7 to Grade 9, with girls reporting higher engagement than boys. These trends did not vary across the 12 countries according to the Human Development Index and Hofstede's Individualism Index. Most of the contextual factors (instructional practices, teacher support, and parent support) were positively associated with student engagement. With the exception that parent support had a stronger association with student engagement in countries with higher collectivism, most of the associations between the contextual factors and student engagement did not vary across countries. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate both cultural universality and specificity regarding contextual factors associated with student engagement in school. They illustrate the advantages of integrating etic and emic approaches in cross-cultural investigations.

Understanding and measuring student engagement in school: the results of an international study from 12 countries.

The objective of the present study was to develop a scale that is appropriate for use internationally to measure affective, behavioral, and cognitive dimensions of student engagement. Psychometric properties of this scale were examined with data of 3,420 students (7th, 8th, and 9th grade) from 12 countries (Austria, Canada, China, Cyprus, Estonia, Greece, Malta, Portugal, Romania, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States). The intraclass correlation of the full-scale scores of student engagement between countries revealed that it was appropriate to aggregate the data from the 12 countries for further analyses. Coefficient alphas revealed good internal consistency. Test-retest reliability coefficients were also acceptable. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the data fit well to a second-order model with affective, behavioral, and cognitive engagement as the first-order factors and student engagement as the second-order factor. The results support the use of this scale to measure student engagement as a metaconstruct. Furthermore, the significant correlations of the scale with instructional practices, teacher support, peer support, parent support, emotions, academic performance, and school conduct indicated good concurrent validity of the scale. Considerations and implications regarding the international use of this student engagement in school measure are discussed.

Do girls and boys perceive themselves as equally engaged in school? The results of an international study from 12 countries.

This study examined gender differences in student engagement and academic performance in school. Participants included 3420 students (7th, 8th, and 9th graders) from Austria, Canada, China, Cyprus, Estonia, Greece, Malta, Portugal, Romania, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The results indicated that, compared to boys, girls reported higher levels of engagement in school and were rated higher by their teachers in academic performance. Student engagement accounted for gender differences in academic performance, but gender did not moderate the associations among student engagement, academic performance, or contextual supports. Analysis of multiple-group structural equation modeling revealed that perceptions of teacher support and parent support, but not peer support, were related indirectly to academic performance through student engagement. This partial mediation model was invariant across gender. The findings from this study enhance the understanding about the contextual and personal factors associated with girls' and boys' academic performance around the world.

Macrostructure in the narratives of Estonian children with typical development and language impairment.

PURPOSE: This study examined the macrostructure in Estonian children's narratives according to the story grammar (SG) model. The study's aims were to determine whether differences exist in narrative macrostructure between Estonian- and English-speaking children, among typically developed (TD) children, and between children with and without language impairment (LI). METHOD: A clinical group of 18 children with LI (ages 6-8) and a control group of 216 TD children (ages 6-7), divided into 3 language competence subgroups, participated in the study. Narratives were analyzed for the presence of SG components and quantity of story information units. RESULTS: Estonian children's narratives reflected age-expected SG structures similar to those of children in English-speaking countries. The analyses revealed significant group influences for the setting category, demonstrating the superior skills of TD children with high language competence in starting stories, compared with their peers. The quantity of story information units differed significantly between the high and low language competence TD subgroups, likewise between the control and the clinical groups. CONCLUSIONS: The contrasts between stories of TD children and between TD and LI children are discussed. The findings support the suitability of the SG model in terms of quantity of story information units for language assessment.

Young children's acquisition of knowledge about the Earth: A longitudinal study.

This longitudinal study examined the acquisition of early knowledge of astronomy to determine whether children's knowledge at any point in time is consistent with a naive "mental model." Children were first assessed by means of open questions and drawing tasks at 2 and 3 years of age (N=143). The knowledge was reassessed over the course of the following 3 years. The results showed that although a few indications of naive mental models were found, in most cases young children's knowledge was fragmented and accurate knowledge was often expressed alongside inaccurate/synthetic ideas. Furthermore, it was shown that children need to know scientific facts before they start taking the global perspective when describing the world and, when faced with ambiguous open questions, children often experience difficulties that can induce them to change the types of answers they provide.

Hostile attributions and behavioral strategies in children: does relationship type matter?

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that children's hostile attributions and behavioral strategies in response to peer provocation and rebuff situations will depend on the relationship with the target peer (i.e., friend, enemy, neutral). The sample consisted of 144 fourth graders (75 boys and 69 girls; mean age=10.47 years, SD=0.55 years). The participants were randomly selected from a pool of 442 children who completed a measure of social adjustment in Grade 3. In Grade 4, children participated in the individual interviews in which they were verbally presented with 6 hypothetical situations. The target peers were identified on the basis of the relationship descriptions. The results clearly demonstrate that children do indeed differentiate between relationship types in regard to hostile attributions and hostile strategies, with more hostility attributed and more hostile responses proposed toward enemies than toward other peers (ps<.05). In addition, this relationship effect holds even when the social and behavioral reputation of the target peers is accounted for (ps<.05).

Cognitive functioning in children with and without Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder with and without comorbid learning disabilities.

This study attempted to determine whether children with the combined subtype of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have impairments in cognitive functioning and motor skills. The specific effect of the comorbidity of learning disabilities (LD) was also investigated. A battery of cognitive tests was administered to 26 children with a clinical diagnosis of ADHD-combined subtype (ADHD/C), to 24 children with ADHD/C with a comorbid diagnosis of LD (ADHD/C+LD), and to 102 participants without disabilities, all between ages 7 and 10. The testing battery consisted of tasks assessing memory, visuospatial and verbal abilities, and fine motor skills. In general, the test results of children with ADHD/C were poorer than those of the control group but better than the results of children with a combined ADHD/C+LD diagnosis (with the exception of motor skills). The predictive accuracy of the testing battery tasks in children with ADHD/C and ADHD/C+LD was examined. The results of a standard procedure of discriminant function analyses revealed that the measures correctly classified 73.6% of the children.