[High incidence of jaundice in young calves in Southern Germany]. / Häufung von Ikterus bei jungen Kälbern in Süddeutschland.

OBJECTIVE: Between September, 2010, and August, 2011, a series of cases of jaundice of unknown origin in young calves was detected in a number of farms in Southern Germany. This paper describes the syndrome on the basis of 57 cases, and the approach taken to discover the cause. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The clinical course of the disease is described in 19 patients. Using a case definition (calves aged 1-3 weeks, total serum bilirubin > 20 µmol/l and/or serum glutamate dehydrogenase [GLDH] activity >50U/l and/or autopsy findings with striking liver pathology [jaundice, liver dystrophy, cirrhosis]), 36 farms were included in an epidemiological survey. In a feeding trial, two batches of a dietary supplement feed, previously used in diseased calves on farms, were fed at the dosage recommendations of the manufacturer to four clinically healthy calves over 5days. Four other calves served as controls. The calves were clinically monitored daily, and blood samples were investigated using clinical chemistry and haematology. RESULTS: Clinical examination revealed behavioural alterations (weakness, tonic-clonic seizures and bawling just before death), recumbency, jaundice and discolouration of faeces. In less severe cases without clinical signs, there was an increase in serum bilirubin concentration and/or GLDH activity. In the epidemiological survey of affected farms, the feeding of a diet supplement feed was registered in 54 of 57 cases. The feeding of two batches of that diet supplement feed to four clinically healthy calves resulted in a significant (p<0.05) increase in bilirubin and lactate concentrations, as well as the GLDH activity in serum, but without serious impairment of the general condition, whereas in control calves, no comparable changes were observed. CONCLUSION: The results of the epidemiological survey and the feeding trial suggest a causal involvement of a dietary supplement feed. The toxic principle is unknown. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Knowledge of the clinical picture and the probable feed-related context is important to detect this disease early. The suspected dietary supplement feed has been taken off the market, but with other products similar problems may arise.

Importance of the effective strong ion difference of an intravenous solution in the treatment of diarrheic calves with naturally acquired acidemia and strong ion (metabolic) acidosis.

BACKGROUND: The effect of sodium bicarbonate on acid-base balance in metabolic acidosis is interpreted differently by Henderson-Hasselbalch and strong ion acid-base approaches. Application of the traditional bicarbonate-centric approach indicates that bicarbonate administration corrects the metabolic acidosis by buffering hydrogen ions, whereas strong ion difference theory indicates that the co-administration of the strong cation sodium with a volatile buffer (bicarbonate) corrects the strong ion acidosis by increasing the strong ion difference (SID) in plasma. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relative importance of the effective SID of IV solutions in correcting acidemia in calves with diarrhea. ANIMALS: Twenty-two Holstein-Friesian calves (4-21 days old) with naturally acquired diarrhea and strong ion (metabolic) acidosis. METHODS: Calves were randomly assigned to IV treatment with a solution of sodium bicarbonate (1.4%) or sodium gluconate (3.26%). Fluids were administered over 4 hours and the effect on acid-base balance was determined. RESULTS: Calves suffered from acidemia owing to moderate to strong ion acidosis arising from hyponatremia and hyper-D-lactatemia. Sodium bicarbonate infusion was effective in correcting the strong ion acidosis. In contrast, sodium gluconate infusion did not change blood pH, presumably because the strong anion gluconate was minimally metabolized. CONCLUSIONS: A solution containing a high effective SID (sodium bicarbonate) is much more effective in alkalinizing diarrheic calves with strong ion acidosis than a solution with a low effective SID (sodium gluconate). Sodium gluconate is ineffective in correcting acidemia, which can be explained using traditional acid-base theory but requires a new parameter, effective SID, to be understood using the strong ion approach.

Experimentally induced systemic hyperchloremic acidosis in calves.

BACKGROUND: Among the various metabolic disturbances occurring in calves affected by neonatal diarrhea or ruminal acidosis, acidemia constitutes an important condition requiring specific therapy. Although various attempts have been made to estimate the degree of metabolic acidosis on the basis of clinical signs alone, some doubts have been raised regarding the accuracy and predictive value of the clinical variables suggested. HYPOTHESIS: The induction of metabolic acidosis in healthy calves via the infusion of hydrochloric acid (HCl) will lead to a clinical picture similar to that seen in neonatal calves with diarrhea or ruminal acidosis. ANIMALS: The study was carried out on 15 Holstein male calves between 5 and 19 days of age. METHODS: Hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis was induced over a period of 80 minutes by an IV infusion of 4,000 mL of 0.9% NaCl solution containing 400 mM HCl. RESULTS: Acidemia occurred rapidly and increased constantly up to a maximum value, which was reached in all calves by the end of the administration and amounted to a 22.4 mM/L mean base deficit (range from 17.0 to 33.1 mM/L). Despite the relatively severe acute acid-base imbalance during the entire observation period, no calves showed any clinical signs or depressed appetite. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Factors other than a disturbance of the acid-base balance should be considered to be primarily responsible for the clinical picture in calves affected by diarrhea or ruminal acidosis.

Application of the glutaraldehyde test in cattle.

In a cohort study involving 62 cows from an experimental farm, the kinetics of the glutaraldehyde test (GAT) according to Sandholm (1974) was examined by testing samples of EDTA blood, lithium heparinate blood, serum, and plasma taken at various intervals. Total protein was measured in serum, and fibrinogen was determined in plasma. Gamma globulin was measured by electrophoresis. All glutaraldehyde tests were performed in duplicates, and the relation of the two results was used as measurement of precision. Optimal cut-off of the GAT time was determined as the zenith of the sum of sensitivity and specificity of various intervals for detecting combinations of gamma globulin and fibrinogen levels above 32 g/l. Precision was the best in EDTA blood. The relation between coagulation time and gamma globulin plus fibrinogen is best described by an exponential curve. The maximum value for the sum of sensitivity and specificity was found at 7 and 8 min. Seven days was the shortest interval observed between a negative test result (>15 min) and a strongly positive test result (<3 min). Twenty-one days was the shortest interval observed between a strongly positive test result and a negative test result. EDTA blood should be used for the GAT. A cut-off of 8 min yields the highest efficiency. Test results must be viewed in light of clinical findings.

[The aetiology of generalized alopecia in young calves]. / Untersuchungen zur Ursache des generalisierten Haarausfalls bei jungen Kälbern.

The objective of this study was to test for correlations between alopecia and ruminal drinking in young calves. 331 calves up to an age of 31 days were tested for evidence of generalized hair loss daily during their stay in the clinic. Incidence of diarrhoea and the results of ruminal fluid and blood analysis were compared between the groups with and without alopecia. Calves with alopecia showed a significantly higher incidence of diarrhoea and of ruminal acidosis persisting for at least 24 hours. Blood analysis revealed significant differences in degree of acidosis, in concentrations of D-lactate, urea, and creatinine in serum as well as in the activities of glutathione peroxidase, aspartate amino transferase, and creatine kinase. Alopecia in calves is correlated to longer periods of diseases, which are known to be accompanied by the production of D-lactate in the gastrointestinal tract, such as diarrhoea and ruminal drinking. The question, whether alopecia is due to formation of toxic substances or to deficiency of essential substances can not be answered.

Breed predisposition for BSE: epidemiological evidence in Bavarian cattle.

We present epidemiological data from Bavaria that indicates that animals of the Brown Swiss (BS) cattle breed might be more susceptible to BSE than animals from other breeds, both in terms of disease prevalence and length of the incubation period. BS animals were disproportionately represented among the BSE cases (BS represented about 9% of the susceptible population but 27% of actual cases). BS were slaughtered at a higher age (5.8 years vs. 5.0 years for other breeds), and there is a higher prevalence of feeding proprietary feeds to BS calves than calves from other breeds. There was no difference in the recorded feeding practice of BSE-positive animals from BS or other breeds. These results would lead to expect a higher prevalence of BSE in the BS population, with BS BSE animals being of equal age or older than BSE animals from other breeds. In contrast, median age at BSE detection was significantly lower in BS animals than in other breeds (61.4 vs. 68.8 months). There was no difference in the identification categories of BSE between BS animals and animals of other breeds that could explain this difference in age. BS cattle are reported to have more octapeptid repeats in the prion protein gene than other breeds, which could account for shorter incubation periods and higher susceptibility. These observations suggest that BS animals and their tissues should be used in further studies into genetic determinants of BSE susceptibility in cattle.

Investigations of the potential risk factors associated with cases of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in Bavaria, Germany.

In order to identify the management and feeding practices that might have contributed to the occurrence of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in Bavaria, Germany, information from 110 dairy farms on which a case of BSE had been reported was compared with information derived from a questionnaire sent to approximately 10,000 Bavarian farms on which no case of BSE had been reported up to February 2003. Representative information was obtained from 4006 dairy farms. The results indicated that in comparison with these control farms a higher proportion of the BSE farms had also kept pigs or poultry, although the difference was not significant, and that a significantly higher proportion of the BSE farms had fed proprietary concentrates and/or milk replacers to their calves.

Investigations of D-lactate metabolism and the clinical signs of D-lactataemia in calves.

Five clinically healthy calves received an intravenous injection of 25 g sodium D-lactate (223 mmol) in 100 ml sterile water and five control calves were given the same volume of 0.9 per cent sodium chloride. Two clinical examiners who were blinded to the status (test or control) of the calves observed that between eight and 40 minutes after the injections the calves that had received sodium-D-lactate could be distinguished with certainty from the control calves on the basis of their clinical signs, for example, an impaired palpebral reflex, somnolence and a staggering gait. One-compartment and two-compartment analyses of the changes in the plasma concentration of D-lactate, and its renal clearance, indicated that the calves metabolised considerable amounts of D-lactate.

D-Lactic acidosis in calves as a consequence of experimentally induced ruminal acidosis.

In order to test the hypothesis that ruminal drinking in calves can lead to D-lactic metabolic acidosis, ruminal acidosis was induced in nine calves by intraruminal application of untreated whole milk via a stomach tube. The amount of the daily force-fed liquid was 3 x 1 l. The experimental design called for an end of intraruminal applications if two or more of the following signs were observed: severe depression, estimated degree of dehydration >10%, absence of sucking reflex, lack of appetite for two consecutive feedings, severe metabolic acidosis with calculated Actual Base Excess (ABE) <-15 mmol/l. The procedure was scheduled to be discontinued on the 17th day of experiment. The onset of ruminal acidification occurred rapidly, and mean pH value fell from 6.70 (+/-0.48) to 4.90 (+/-0.38) after the first application. The following days the pH values varied between 4 and 5. Rumen acidity was characterized biochemically by a significant increase in both isomers of lactic acid. The effects of the intraruminal administration on the calves were detrimental; eight of nine calves showed an acute disease process. According to the pre-established clinical standard, seven of nine calves were removed from the intraruminal feeding schedule. All but one of the calves developed severe systemic acidosis. The increase in anion gap demonstrated the net acid load. In all the calves D-lactate levels were found to show a significant and rapid increase. On the contrary, L-lactate never deviated from physiological levels. These observations confirm that, in young calves as in adult cattle, ruminal acidosis may lead to a clinically manifested D-lactic metabolic acidosis.

[Clinical examination of cattle for BSE in a cattle facility and slaughterhouse]. / Klinische Untersuchung von Rindern auf BSE an einem Vieh- und Schlachthof.

Detection of a case of BSE in slaughtered cattle causes considerable expenses. It seems therefore desirable to screen cattle before slaughtering and exclude suspect animals from slaughter. The object of this study was to determine the practicability of such screening under realistic conditions in a large slaughterhouse and to evaluate the specificity of the tests proposed by BRAUN et al. (1997). 949 cattle over 24 months old were examined in the Munich slaughterhouse. Spontaneous behaviour and the reaction to tactile, acoustic, and optical stimuli only could be tested. The evaluation of locomotion was not possible without interference with the routine processing of cattle before slaughter. The examination took about three minutes per animal. The results were evaluated using a modification of the scheme of BRAUN et al. (1997). The specificity of the classification "BSE very likely" was 97.8%. If all animals that exhibit any signs suggestive of BSE were to be excluded, the specificity would drop to 63.7%. This pre-slaughter clinical screening is not useful.

The relationship between milk yield and the incidence of some diseases in dairy cows.

Logistic regression models were used to examine the relationship between milk yield and incidence of certain disorders. Lactations (n = 2197) of 1074 Holstein-Friesian cows from 10 dairies (25 to 146 cows per dairy) in Lower Saxony were studied. The 305-d yield from the previous and current lactations served as the standards for milk yield. Eight disorder complexes were considered: retained placenta, metritis, ovarian cysts, mastitis, claw diseases, milk fever, ketosis, and displaced abomasum. Each disorder complex was modeled separately. In addition to milk yield, the influences of the lactation number, the calving season and the other disorder complexes were examined with the "herd" factor taken into account. A correlation between retained placenta, mastitis, and milk fever to milk yield during the previous lactation was found to be probable and for ketosis and displaced abomasum such a correlation was found to be possible. A connection to the yield in the current lactation was shown for ovarian cysts, claw diseases, and milk fever. No relationship to milk yield existed for metritis. An influence of the lactation number was also demonstrated in various models. Single models allowed a demonstration of the influences of both milk yield and lactation number. Limitations of the model types are discussed.

[Electrolyte levels in feces and urine in healthy breeding calves between the ages of 5 days to 6 months]. / Elektrolytkonzentrationen in Kot und Harn von gesunden Aufzuchtkälbern im Alter von fünf Tagen bis sechs Monaten.

In contrast to the situation in adult cattle there are high concentrations of sodium and low concentrations of potassium in the faeces of suckling calves. It was investigated in this study in which stage of the development of the ruminant these changes in electrolyte levels occur, and whether there are changes in electrolyte levels in urine as well. Samples of faeces and urine from healthy calves were examined fortnightly starting with the 5th day after birth. There was a distinct decrease in sodium concentration in faecal water within the first three weeks of life, i.e. without any relation to the intake of solid feed. However, the levels of sodium, potassium and chloride in urine samples and of potassium in faecal water increased with the development of rumination. The concentration of chloride in faeces was on a low level during the whole period of investigation.

[Investigations on the usefulness of the dry chemistry blood anaylsis system SPOTCHEM SP-4410in laboratory diagnosis of cattle]. / Untersuchungen über die Einsatzmöglichkeit des Trockenchemie-Analysensystems SPOTCHEM SP-4410 in der Labordiagnostik beim Rind.

The usefulness of the dry-chemistry blood analyzer, SPOTCHEM SP-4410, for analysis of bovine blood chemistry was studied in a veterinary clinic. The control serum Precipath-U, Boehringer-Mannheim, was used to measure precision within each run and between days. The coefficients of variation (CV) ranged between 1.54% and 4.86%, with the exception of albumin and creatine phosphokinase showing a CV of 6.3% and 10.03% for between-day precision. For methodological comparison bovine serum samples were assayed with both the SPOTCHEM SP-4410 and the automated blood analyzer HITACHI 705, which served as a wet-chemistry reference system. The following analytes were measured: glucose, urea, creatinine, total protein, albumin, total bilirubin and the enzymes AST, CPK and gamma-GT. For hemoglobin, which was measured in heparinized whole blood, the CO oximeter 855, CIBA-CORNING, was used as a reference system. The comparative analysis showed very good correlation in eight of ten parameters and their correlation coefficients (r) ranged between 0.962 and 0.998. Only the correlation coefficients of the analysis of total bilirubin (r = 0.903) and albumin (r = 0.771) were less satisfactory. The recovery test was carried out with the two parameters glucose and blood urea. The recovery of glucose was 93.7% and of urea 98.8%. The SPOTCHEM SP-4410 is easy to use and proved to be reliable and accurate, and therefore it seems to be useful for analysis of bovine blood samples.

Efficacy of an immune modulator in enzootic pneumonia of dairy calves.

The objective of this cohort study was the evaluation of the efficacy of an immune modulator in the prophylaxis, metaphylaxis and treatment of enzootic bronchopneumonia (EBP). A total of 552 dairy calves on 13 farms were included. Groups of calves were included in the study if the prevalence of respiratory disease on the first visit was at least 50%, and the number of animals aged 2-16 weeks was at least 10. Controls were treated with a placebo. Animals of both groups were treated antibiotically if body temperature exceeded 39.5 degrees C. A clinimetric system was devised and used for classifying the animals into one of seven categories (healthy, beginning respiratory disease, acute BP, subacute BP, chronic BP, acute flare-up of chronic BP, and other disease). Animals were examined clinically on days 1, 3, 10, and 28. In animals treated prophylactically, the incidence of BP on day 10 was significantly higher (51%) than in those that received the placebo (31%). In animals treated metaphylactically, the average number of treatment days was significantly lower (2.86) than in the placebo group (3.81). In animals treated therapeutically, the incidence of EBP on day 10 was significantly lower than in the placebo group.

[Effect of ad lib and restricted milk feeding on the course of illness and body weight in young calves with diarrhea]. / Untersuchungen zur Auswirkung von Ad-libitum- und rationierter Milchtränkung auf Krankheitsverlauf und Körpermasseentwicklung bei jungen Kälbern mit Durchfall.

Two different feeding regimens for calves (age up to 21 days) suffering from acute diarrhea were evaluated with respect to course of illness and change in body weight. The patients of the experimental group were given whole milk ad libitum three times a day. The patients of the control group were offered whole milk at a rate of 13% their body mass per day divided into three meals. In addition, both groups were offered an oral rehydration solution at a rate 9.5% of body mass per day, also divided into three portions. Data from 60 calves (30 in both groups) were available for statistical analysis. The duration of illness in the experimental group was 10.9 +/- 6.0 days vs. 10.0 +/- 5.2 days in the control group. The daily increase of body mass in the experimental group averaged 0.607 +/- 0.452 kg, the one in the control group 0.230 +/- 0.231 kg (p = 0.0002). The calves of the experimental group required 13.16 +/- 11.18 I milk per kg weight gain, the calves of the control group 21.39 +/- 12.80 I. Six calves of the experimental group and two calves of the control group subsequently had a relapse. On the basis of the results obtained, a feeding regimen for calves suffering from acute diarrhea is suggested.

[Cecal intussusception in calves]. / Blinddarminvaginationen beim Kalb.

Among the patients admitted to the II. Medical Animal Clinic of the University of Munich from 1986 through 1994, there were 51 calves at an age of up to three months with intussusceptions in the caecal region. The following forms were observed: caecocaecal (n = 12), caecocolic (n = 22), ileocaecocolic (n = 6), ileocaecal (n = 8), and jejunoileocolic (n = 3). In 40 cases, the intussusception occurred in the course of diarrheal disease. The most important signs were scant faeces, that often contained blood and/or mucus, and the finding of a hard viscus upon abdominal palpation. Colic was observed in 27% of patients. In 18 cases, surgical intervention was not attempted because of the advanced stage of the disease or severe accompanying disease. From the remaining 33 calves, eight were cured. The others were either destroyed or died because of extensive peritonitis or other diseases. This report is to draw attention to the fact that (caecal) intussusception should be considered in diarrheal calves when faecal output decreases suddenly, and the general state deteriorates.

[Retrospective evaluation of urea and creatinine blood levels in calves with diarrhea]. / Retrospektive Auswertung von Harnstoff- und Kreatininblutspiegeln bei an Durchfall erkrankten Kälbern.

Data of 393 calves treated for neonatal diarrhea as in-patients in the II. Medical Animal Clinic of the University of Munich were included in a retrospective study with special regard to the course and prognostic information of blood urea, blood creatinine, urea-creatinine-ratio, and PCV. Mean values, standard deviation and maximum values that were measured upon admission to the clinic: blood urea: 16.86 +/- 12.35; 75.70 mmol/l; blood creatinine: 260.3 +/- 204.4; 1610.2 mumol/l; urea-creatinine-ratio [both in mmol/l]: 70.28 +/- 36.38; 245.8; PCV: 41.66 +/- 9.1; 71.5% (mean +/- S.D). Even very high values for blood urea, blood creatinine, urea-creatinine-ratio, and PCV determined at admission yielded no prognostic information, but unchanged or higher urea values on the second day in the clinic were associated with a deterioration of prognosis.