Insight into the Molecular Mechanism of Diabetic Kidney Disease and the Role of Metformin in Its Pathogenesis.

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is one of the leading causes of death among patients diagnosed with diabetes mellitus. Despite the growing knowledge about the pathogenesis of DKD, we still do not have effective direct pharmacotherapy. Accurate blood sugar control is essential in slowing down DKD. It seems that metformin has a positive impact on kidneys and this effect is not only mediated by its hypoglycemic action, but also by direct molecular regulation of pathways involved in DKD. The molecular mechanism of DKD is complex and we can distinguish polyol, hexosamine, PKC, and AGE pathways which play key roles in the development and progression of this disease. Each of these pathways is overactivated in a hyperglycemic environment and it seems that most of them may be regulated by metformin. In this article, we summarize the knowledge about DKD pathogenesis and the potential mechanism of the nephroprotective effect of metformin. Additionally, we describe the impact of metformin on glomerular endothelial cells and podocytes, which are harmed in DKD.

Myocarditis Induced by Immunotherapy in Metastatic Melanoma-Review of Literature and Current Guidelines.

Immunotherapy is a widely used treatment modality in oncology. Immune checkpoint inhibitors, as a part of immunotherapy, caused a revolution in oncology, especially in melanoma therapy, due to the significant prolongation of patients' overall survival. These drugs act by activation of inhibited immune responses of T lymphocytes against cancer cells. The mechanism responsible for the therapy's high efficacy is also involved in immune tolerance of the patient's own tissues. The administration of ICI therapy to a patient can cause severe immune reactions against non-neoplastic cells. Among them, cardiotoxicity seems most important due to the high mortality rate. In this article, we present the history of a 79 year-old patient diagnosed with melanoma who died due to myocarditis induced by ICI therapy, despite the fast administration of recommended immunosuppressive therapy, as an illustration of possible adverse events of ICI. Additionally, we summarize the mechanism, risk factors, biomarkers, and clinical data from currently published guidelines and studies about ICI-related myocarditis. The fast recognition of this fatal adverse effect of therapy may accelerate the rapid introduction of treatment and improve patients' outcomes.

The Problem of Wound Healing in Diabetes-From Molecular Pathways to the Design of an Animal Model.

Chronic wounds are becoming an increasingly common clinical problem due to an aging population and an increased incidence of diabetes, atherosclerosis, and venous insufficiency, which are the conditions that impair and delay the healing process. Patients with diabetes constitute a group of subjects in whom the healing process is particularly prolonged regardless of its initial etiology. Circulatory dysfunction, both at the microvascular and macrovascular levels, is a leading factor in delaying or precluding wound healing in diabetes. The prolonged period of wound healing increases the risk of complications such as the development of infection, including sepsis and even amputation. Currently, many substances applied topically or systemically are supposed to accelerate the process of wound regeneration and finally wound closure. The role of clinical trials and preclinical studies, including research based on animal models, is to create safe medicinal products and ensure the fastest possible healing. To achieve this goal and minimize the wide-ranging burdens associated with conducting clinical trials, a correct animal model is needed to replicate the wound conditions in patients with diabetes as closely as possible. The aim of the paper is to summarize the most important molecular pathways which are impaired in the hyperglycemic state in the context of designing an animal model of diabetic chronic wounds. The authors focus on research optimization, including economic aspects and model reproducibility, as well as the ethical dimension of minimizing the suffering of research subjects according to the 3 Rs principle (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement).

Extracellular Vesicles-A New Potential Player in the Immunology of Renal Cell Carcinoma.

The incidence of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) has doubled in the developed world within the last fifty years, and now it is responsible for 2-3% of diagnosed cancers. The delay in diagnosis and the not fully understood pathogenesis are the main challenges that have to be overcome. It seems that extracellular vesicles (EVs) are one of the key players in tumor development since they ensure a proper microenvironment for the tumor cells. The stimulation of angiogenesis and immunosuppression is mediated by molecules contained in EVs. It was shown that EVs derived from cancer cells can inhibit T cell proliferation, natural killer lymphocyte activation, and dendritic cell maturation by this mechanism. Moreover, EVs may be a biomarker for the response to anti-cancer treatment. In this review, we sum up the knowledge about the role of EVs in RCC pathogenesis and show their future perspectives in this field.

Insight into the Role of the PI3K/Akt Pathway in Ischemic Injury and Post-Infarct Left Ventricular Remodeling in Normal and Diabetic Heart.

Despite the significant decline in mortality, cardiovascular diseases are still the leading cause of death worldwide. Among them, myocardial infarction (MI) seems to be the most important. A further decline in the death rate may be achieved by the introduction of molecularly targeted drugs. It seems that the components of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway are good candidates for this. The PI3K/Akt pathway plays a key role in the regulation of the growth and survival of cells, such as cardiomyocytes. In addition, it has been shown that the activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway results in the alleviation of the negative post-infarct changes in the myocardium and is impaired in the state of diabetes. In this article, the role of this pathway was described in each step of ischemia and subsequent left ventricular remodeling. In addition, we point out the most promising substances which need more investigation before introduction into clinical practice. Moreover, we present the impact of diabetes and widely used cardiac and antidiabetic drugs on the PI3K/Akt pathway and discuss the molecular mechanism of its effects on myocardial ischemia and left ventricular remodeling.

Breakdown of Diabetic Foot Ulcer Care during the First Year of the Pandemic in Poland: A Retrospective National Cohort Study.

The COVID-19 pandemic revealed a breakdown of the system of DFU patient care. This retrospective national cohort study analyses the epidemiological status of DFU patients in relation to urgent and elective hospitalizations, amputation rates, and deaths in Poland from 2017 to 2019, and during 2020 when the COVID-19 pandemic began. The data were obtained from national medical records gathered by the National Health Fund (NHF). Discharge diagnoses were categorized according to ICD-10 and ICD-9 codes. Analysis of the data showed a statistically significant decrease in elective hospital admissions (from 29.6% to 26.3%, p = 0.001). There was a decrease in the percentage of hospitalizations related to limb-salvage procedures (from 79.4% to 71.3%, p = 0.001). The opposite tendency was observed among urgent hospital admissions (from 67.0% to 73.2%, p = 0.01), which was related to a significant increase in the number of minor amputations (from 3146 to 4269, p = 0.017). This rise was in parallel with the increase in the percentage of patients who died during hospitalization due to DFU (from 3.9% to 4.8%, p = 0.03). The number of deaths has not changed significantly (from 590.7 to 668.0, p = 0.26). The results of the conducted analyses confirm the negative tendencies in the medical care of patients with DFU during the first year of the pandemic in Poland. Changes in therapy schemes and stronger patient support following this period are necessary to avoid further complications in patients with DFU.

Treatment of Malignant Adnexal Tumors of the Skin: A 12-Year Perspective.

Malignant adnexal cancers of the skin-extremely rare neoplasms-are mostly reported as non-symptomatic, slow-growing nodules. These carcinomas occur mainly in the middle-aged (50-60 years of age); they are mostly localized on the upper part of the body and are locally aggressive, infiltrate surrounding tissue, and metastasize to regional lymph nodes. The patients' outcomes depend on multiple prognostic factors, including the size of the primary tumor and its mitotic count. Surgical resection of the primary tumor with or without regional lymph nodes is the treatment method of choice; however, due to aggressive tumor behavior, perioperative treatment may be considered. The role and efficacy of radiotherapy in the treatment of skin adnexal malignancies are not yet fully defined. Some authors suggest that adjuvant radiotherapy may be considered in locally advanced and regional disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate treatment outcomes and assess the efficacy of combined therapy in patients with adnexal malignancies. Our analysis covered all cases of cutaneous adnexal tumor patients diagnosed and provided with multidisciplinary treatment with surgery and radiotherapy since the beginning of 2009.

Anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system-from molecular mechanisms to therapeutic applications.

Few millions of new cancer cases are diagnosed worldwide every year. Due to significant progress in understanding cancer biology and developing new therapies, the mortality rates are decreasing with many of patients that can be completely cured. However, vast majority of them require chemotherapy which comes with high medical costs in terms of adverse events, of which cardiotoxicity is one of the most serious and challenging. Anthracyclines (doxorubicin, epirubicin) are a class of cytotoxic agents used in treatment of breast cancer, sarcomas, or hematological malignancies that are associated with high risk of cardiotoxicity that is observed in even up to 30% of patients and can be diagnosed years after the therapy. The mechanism, in which anthracyclines cause cardiotoxicity are not well known, but it is proposed that dysregulation of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), one of main humoral regulators of cardiovascular system, may play a significant role. There is increasing evidence that drugs targeting this system can be effective in the prevention and treatment of anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity what has recently found reflection in the recommendation of some scientific societies. In this review, we comprehensively describe possible mechanisms how anthracyclines affect RAAS and lead to cardiotoxicity. Moreover, we critically review available preclinical and clinical data on use of RAAS inhibitors in the primary and secondary prevention and treatment of cardiac adverse events associated with anthracycline-based chemotherapy.

Impact of the Main Cardiovascular Risk Factors on Plasma Extracellular Vesicles and Their Influence on the Heart's Vulnerability to Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury.

The majority of cardiovascular deaths are associated with acute coronary syndrome, especially ST-elevation myocardial infarction. Therapeutic reperfusion alone can contribute up to 40 percent of total infarct size following coronary artery occlusion, which is called ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI). Its size depends on many factors, including the main risk factors of cardiovascular mortality, such as age, sex, systolic blood pressure, smoking, and total cholesterol level as well as obesity, diabetes, and physical effort. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-coated particles released by every type of cell, which can carry content that affects the functioning of other tissues. Their role is essential in the communication between healthy and dysfunctional cells. In this article, data on the variability of the content of EVs in patients with the most prevalent cardiovascular risk factors is presented, and their influence on IRI is discussed.

Current Diagnosis and Treatment Options for Cutaneous Adnexal Neoplasms with Apocrine and Eccrine Differentiation.

Adnexal tumors of the skin are a rare group of benign and malignant neoplasms that exhibit morphological differentiation toward one or more of the adnexal epithelium types present in normal skin. Tumors deriving from apocrine or eccrine glands are highly heterogeneous and represent various histological entities. Macroscopic and dermatoscopic features of these tumors are unspecific; therefore, a specialized pathological examination is required to correctly diagnose patients. Limited treatment guidelines of adnexal tumor cases are available; thus, therapy is still challenging. Patients should be referred to high-volume skin cancer centers to receive an appropriate multidisciplinary treatment, affecting their outcome. The purpose of this review is to summarize currently available data on pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment approach for apocrine and eccrine tumors.

Current Diagnosis and Treatment Options for Cutaneous Adnexal Neoplasms with Follicular Differentiation.

Neoplasms derived from follicular tissue are extremely rare. Clinically, they are reported as non-symptomatic, slow-growing nodules. These lesions are mainly benign, but the malignant type can occur. Mainly middle-aged people (50-60 years of age) are affected. These carcinomas are mainly localized on the head and neck or torso. They can be locally aggressive and infiltrate surrounding tissue and metastasize to regional lymph nodes. In the minority of cases, distant metastases are diagnosed. Quick and relevant diagnosis is the basis of a treatment for all types of tumors. The patient's life expectancy depends on multiple prognostic factors, including the primary tumor size and its mitotic count. Patients should be referred to a specialized skin cancer center to receive optimal multidisciplinary treatment. This article tries to summarize all the information that is currently available about pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment methods of follicular tumors.