Blood in milk in horned dairy cows-Exploration of incidences and prevention opportunities.

Husbandry of horned cows is one alternative to disbudding that respects the animals´ integrity. Concurrently, housing and management should be aligned with the animals' needs to minimize social interactions that can result in integument damage (ID) and udder injuries associated with blood in milk (BM). No information is available on incidences of BM, nor on specific preventive measures. Thus, this study aimed at investigating BM incidences in horned herds and testing whether compliance with guideline recommendations on the prevention of ID also contributes to mitigate BM. Twenty-one farms documented BM, cows' parity, social rank, and udder damage over seven months covering part of summer with pasture and winter in the barn. A total of 52 factors relating to the guideline were recorded and grouped into 'milking', 'feeding', 'lying', 'walking/activity' and 'herd management'. Each factor was categorised into fulfilled or not, and for each group percentages of fulfilment were calculated. Monthly BM incidences varied from 0.3 to 7.8% with 38% being associated with visible udder damage (BMvD). Most cows affected were in the 2nd to 4th lactation (44%) and middle-ranking (58%). A mixed model regarding 'monthly binomial BMvD' per farm revealed a higher BMvD risk during the barn season (OR = 2.39), highlighting the importance of pasture to alleviate social conflicts. Higher fulfilment of recommendations concerning 'feeding' and 'walking/activity' was associated with a lower risk (OR = 0.94 and 0.95), indicating that the conflict potential in these areas also plays a role for BMvD and can be lowered by a combination of improvement measures.

Welfare of ducks, geese and quail on farm.

This Scientific Opinion concerns the welfare of Domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus), Muscovy ducks (Cairina moschata domesticus) and their hybrids (Mule ducks), Domestic geese (Anser anser f. domesticus) and Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) in relation to the rearing of breeders, birds for meat, Muscovy and Mule ducks and Domestic geese for foie gras and layer Japanese quail for egg production. The most common husbandry systems (HSs) in the European Union are described for each animal species and category. The following welfare consequences are described and assessed for each species: restriction of movement, injuries (bone lesions including fractures and dislocations, soft tissue lesions and integument damage and locomotory disorders including lameness), group stress, inability to perform comfort behaviour, inability to perform exploratory or foraging behaviour and inability to express maternal behaviour (related to prelaying and nesting behaviours). Animal-based measures relevant for the assessment of these welfare consequences were identified and described. The relevant hazards leading to the welfare consequences in the different HSs were identified. Specific factors such as space allowance (including minimum enclosure area and height) per bird, group size, floor quality, characteristics of nesting facilities and enrichment provided (including access to water to fulfil biological needs) were assessed in relation to the welfare consequences and, recommendations on how to prevent the welfare consequences were provided in a quantitative or qualitative way.

Associations between Dairy Herds' Qualitative Behavior and Aspects of Herd Health, Stockperson and Farm Factors-A Cross-Sectional Exploration.

The affective state is an integrated aspect of farm animal welfare, which is understood as the animals' perception of their living environment and of their internal biological functioning. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to explore animal-internal and external factors potentially influencing dairy cows' affective state. For this purpose, qualitative behavior assessments (QBA) describing the animals' body language were applied at herd level on 25 dairy farms. By means of principal component analysis (PCA), scores of PC1 (QBAscores) were determined for further analyses. From monthly milk recordings (MR) one year retrospectively, prevalences of udder and metabolic health impairments were calculated. Factors of housing, management, and human-animal contact were recorded via interviews and observations. A multivariable regression was calculated following a univariable preselection of factors. No associations were found between MR indicators and QBAscores. However, more positive QBAscores were associated with bedded cubicles or straw yards compared to raised cubicles, increased voluntary stockperson contact with the cows, and fixation of cows during main feeding times, the latter contributing to the explanatory model, but not being significant. These results underline the importance of lying comfort, positive human-animal relationship and reduction of competition during feeding for the well-being of dairy cows.

Animal Welfare Consequences of Organic Boar Fattening and Occurrence of Boar Taint on Five Commercial Farms.

The welfare of male fattening pigs may be improved by refraining from castration, but may be compromised, in turn, by harmful social behaviour in groups of boars. In addition, boar taint may be problematic. This study aimed to evaluate these potential problems in boar fattening under commercial organic conditions. In total, 625 boars were compared with 433 barrows and 83 gilts regarding their social behaviour, lesions and lameness at 80 kg, before and after split marketing. The mixed-model analysis showed that significantly more short agonistic interactions, fights and mounting behaviours were observed in groups of boars. Agonistic interactions were reduced in spring/summer and when boars grew older. Fights and mounts were increased when boars had contact to female pigs in the neighbouring pen. No effect of split marketing, growth rate, homogeneity of groups, group size, feeding space and illumination hours could be detected. Increased interaction frequencies did not result in significantly more skin lesions, lameness, treatments or mortality. Increased space allowance reduced skin lesions. On 9.8% of the dissected boars' penises, wounds were detected; they were absent on two farms with generous litter provision. Boar taint prevalence, as detected by human nose method, was 1.44%. Under the studied organic husbandry conditions, boar fattening appears to be practicable, although penile injuries should be monitored at slaughter.

Automatic Assessment of Keel Bone Damage in Laying Hens at the Slaughter Line.

Keel bone damage (KBD) can be found in all commercial laying hen flocks with a wide range of 23% to 69% of hens/flock found to be affected in this study. As KBD may be linked with chronic pain and a decrease in mobility, it is a serious welfare problem. An automatic assessment system at the slaughter line could support the detection of KBD and would have the advantage of being standardized and fast scoring including high sample sizes. A 2MP stereo camera combined with an IDS imaging color camera was used for the automatic assessment. A trained human assessor visually scored KBD in defeathered hens during the slaughter process and compared results with further human assessors and automatic recording. In a first step, an algorithm was developed on the basis of assessments of keel status of 2287 hens of different genetics with varying degrees of KBD. In two optimization steps, performance data were calculated, and flock prevalences were determined, which were compared between the assessor and the automatic system. The proposed technique finally reached a sensitivity of 0.95, specificity of 0.77, accuracy of 0.86 and precision of 0.81. In the last optimization step, the automatic system scored on average about 10.5% points lower KBD prevalences than the human assessor. However, a proposed change of scoring system (setting the limit for KBD at 0.5 cm deviation from the straight line) would lower this deviation. We conclude that the developed automatic scoring technique is a reliable and potentially valuable tool for the assessment of KBD.

Husbandry Conditions and Welfare Outcomes in Organic Egg Production in Eight European Countries.

In the European research project HealthyHens, welfare indicators as well as husbandry and management conditions were recorded in 107 organic laying hen farms in eight countries. Farms were visited at peak and end of lay. Egg production was on average comparable to breeder specifications. A mean mortality of 5.7% and mean prevalences of footpad lesions of 30.5%, keel bone damage of 44.5%, 57.3% of flocks with on average >200 Ascarid eggs per gram faeces and 28.2% of flocks with >100 mites/trap were recorded. A large variation between flocks indicated options for improvement. Based on the results, the following measures can be recommended: (i) decreasing mite and worm infestation and (ii) providing an attractive covered veranda, because of their association with decreased mortality; (iii) maximising access to the free range, because of its relation to decreased A. galli infection and less injurious pecking; (iv) feeding sufficient protein levels and (v) providing adequate litter as preventive measure against feather pecking and cannibalism; (vi) ensuring that the birds have sufficient weight and (vii) preventing accidents by adequate hen house facilities and light conditions to reduce keel bone damage. These primarily management-based measures have the potential to improve bird welfare both in terms of behavioural and health aspects.

Automatically Detected Pecking Activity in Group-Housed Turkeys.

In search for an early warning system for cannibalism, in this study a newly developed automatic pecking activity detection system was validated and used to investigate how pecking activity changes over the rearing phase and before cannibalistic outbreaks. Data were recorded on two farms, one with female (intact beaks) and the other with male (trimmed beaks) turkeys. A metallic pecking object that was equipped with a microphone was installed in the barn and video monitored. Pecking activity was continuously recorded and fed into a CNN (Convolutional neural network) model that automatically detected pecks. The CNN was validated on both farms, and very satisfactory detection performances were reached (mean sensitivity/recall, specificity, accuracy, precision, and F1-score around 90% or higher). The extent of pecking at the object differed between farms, but the objects were used during the whole recording time, with highest activities in the morning hours. Daily pecking frequencies showed a low downward trend over the rearing period, although on both farms they increased again in week 5 of life. No clear associations between pecking frequencies and in total three cannibalistic outbreaks on farm 1 in one batch could be found. The detection system is usable for further research, but it should be further automated. It should also be further tested under various farm conditions.

Physical development, ease of integration into the dairy herd and performance of primiparous dairy cows reared with full whole-day, half-day or no mother-contact as calves.

We investigated whether different rearing conditions affected the physical development, ease of integration into the dairy herd and performance of primiparous dairy cows and the results are reported in this Research Communication. The three rearing conditions investigated were whole-day cow-calf contact for 9 weeks (WDC), half-day contact for nine weeks (HDC) and no mother-contact (NC) with nipple-bucket-feeding (max. 2 × 3 l/d) and group-housing from the 8th day onward. After permanent separation from the dams (WDC and HDC), all calves had been nipple-bucket-fed and gradually weaned from week 10 to 13 of life and kept together as calves and heifers. Measures of physical development were trunk girth, height at withers and body weight. Lying behavior during the first 48 h after introduction to the dairy herd after first calving was used as an indicator of ease of integration. Performance measures were age at calving, lactation duration, milk yield and culling rates during the first lactation. No differences between WDC and HDC could be detected. Moreover, no treatment-effects on physical development or performance could be found. All treatments showed reduced lying for the first 24 h after introduction to the dairy herd. Afterward NC-heifers lay less than WDC, with HDC-heifers ranging in between. We conclude that under the conditions investigated higher weights two weeks after weaning in WDC- and HDC-calves did not carry through to the first lactation and did not lead to earlier maturity and higher performance, but that integration into the herd may be alleviated when calves have early experience of the herd and associated conditions.

A framework for the socio-economic evaluation of rearing systems of dairy calves with or without cow contact.

Interest in dairy calf rearing systems with cow-calf contact during the milk feeding period is increasing among farmers, advisors and researchers, but socio-economic consequences have only scarcely been investigated yet. In this research reflection we develop a suggestion for a socio-economic methodical framework that is suitable for the wide variation of cow calf rearing systems, farm, market and societal conditions. Based on a literature based, system-theoretical structuring of involved elements, and on full cost accounting in an exemplary case study concerning two model farms, we itemize monetary factors, and additionally important non-monetary factors, that should be included in a socio-economic evaluation. This process also revealed further research needs. We propose as a next research step to gather a greater number of real farm data including different rearing systems and to perform individual full cost accountings, in order to identify input and output patterns on this basis. This might not only help to provide a robust basis for economic decision making, but also help to fill research gaps concerning long-term effects of calf rearing with cow contact. In addition, ways should be explored on how to take non-monetary effects into account.

Fecal Cortisol Metabolites in Dairy Cows: A Cross-Sectional Exploration of Associations with Animal, Stockperson, and Farm Characteristics.

To date, little is known about influences on cows' physiological stress levels on farms. The present study explored associations of fecal cortisol metabolite concentrations (FCM) with (1) farm factors including human-animal contact, (2) cows' fear behaviors towards humans, and (3) milk production and udder health, involving 25 dairy farms and repeated fecal samples (n = 2625) from 674 focal cows. Farm factors via interviews and observations, avoidance distance (AD) and qualitative behavior assessment (QBA) during a human-animal interaction were recorded. Milk yield and somatic cell scores (SCS) were calculated from milk recordings. Levels of FCMs were in general relatively low. No associations with AD and milk yield could be detected. Correlations between FCMs and QBA and SCS were significant, but on a low level. Against expectations, FCMs were higher, when the farm provided concentrates by hand and habituated heifers to milking, in part possibly due to reversed cause-effect relations. Decreased FCM levels were found on farms that did not separate diseased cows, possibly due to the avoidance of social stress following changes in group structure. Additionally, straw yards compared to raised cubicles and generous compared to suboptimal lying space were associated with decreased levels, underlining the importance of comfort around resting. Moreover, FCMs were decreased with increased human contact time per cow. The different associations detected in this study provide a basis for further experimental investigations that moreover might provide insights into causal relationships.

Suitability of Slower Growing Commercial Turkey Strains for Organic Husbandry in Terms of Animal Welfare and Performance.

Intensive turkey production with fast growing strains is often critically discussed regarding animal welfare problems. Studies evaluating the welfare status of both organic and less intensive selected turkey strains are limited, except in the slightly slower growing Kelly Broad Breast Bronze (Kelly). The aim of this study was to assess the welfare of turkeys from two strains with further decreased growth rate, Hockenhull Large Bronze (HoBr) and Hockenhull Black (HoBl), in comparison to Kelly under commercial organic conditions with 100% organic feed. Altogether 844 non-beak-trimmed male turkeys (274-288 per line) were reared and fattened in three replications with each six groups. On group level, use of resources in the 7, 16, and 25th week of life, mortality and feed conversion were recorded. Each bird was assessed with regard to plumage and skin condition as indicators of agonistic interactions, cannibalism and feather pecking, with regard to leg health, footpad, breast skin condition and, as performance indicators, live and carcass weight, utilization, daily weight gain and weights of valuable meat parts. The significantly slower growing HoBl showed slightly fewer malposition of the legs, reduced injury rates and less breast buttons, but a higher susceptibility to footpad dermatitis than Kelly turkeys. HoBr with a similar growth rate compared to Kelly had slightly more problems concerning walking ability and plumage damage, but also less breast buttons than Kelly turkeys. However, effect sizes were negligible (Φ < 0.10), except for the higher occurrence of footpad dermatitis and the reduced number of breast buttons in HoBl with small effect sizes (Φ = 0.20-0.24). Use of resources, prevalence of breast blisters and mortality, were not statistically different, although mortality rate was numerically lower in HoBl. Thus, for none of the studied strains clear benefits or disadvantages in terms of the birds' predisposition for welfare problems could be identified. Overall, prevalences of animal welfare problems were mostly lower than in comparable studies while performances were comparatively high. Therefore, turkeys from the studied strains appear to be suitable for organic rearing and fattening with 100% organic feed, given a good management.

Human and farm influences on dairy cows´ responsiveness towards humans - a cross-sectional study.

The human-animal relationship can have a major impact on cow welfare and stockpersons´ work safety and quality. This cross-sectional study investigated possible effects of stockperson and farm related factors on cows´ behaviour towards humans in different test situations on a range of farm types including farms with automatic milking system. On 32 dairy farms, cows´ avoidance distances (AD), tolerance to tactile interactions (TTI), behavioural reactions during and after release from restraint (RB) and expressive behaviour by means of qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) were recorded. Multiple regressions were calculated to analyse associations between the cows´ responses towards humans and factors of stockpersons´ attitudes, factors of human-animal contact and further herd and management characteristics. Positive attitudes towards cows were significantly associated with calmer cows in all test situations. Furthermore, different herd and management factors were related to individual variables of cows´ behaviour towards humans: for instance, the percentage of dehorned cows in the herd was associated with more fearful cows; the frequency of human-animal contact, manual feed provision, or selection for docility were associated with calmer cows. Explained variances were highest for the outcome variables AD and QBA. Directly or indirectly all factors remaining in the final models may be related to the amount and quality of human-animal contacts. Thus, the results suggest that on a broad range of different farm types a positive attitude and frequent human-animal contact can contribute to calmer cows in different interactions with humans in the barn.

[Effects of stocking density on the behaviour and bodily state of broilers fattened with a target liveweight of 2 kg]. / Auswirkungen der Besatzdichte in der Schwermast auf das Verhalten sowie die Fuess- und Beingesundheit von Masthühnern.

The current investigation is a contribution to the animal welfare debate on acceptable stocking densities in broiler chickens. Two stocking densities on similar levels as currently legally regulated (35 kg/m2 und 40 kg/m2) and two cleary lower stocking densities (18 kg/m2 und 25 kg/m2) were investigated in groups of 18 to 42 Lohmann broiler chickens (B) in three batches with each time one replication of all stocking densities. Target weight of the broiler chickens was 2 kg at 39 or 40 days of age. Mortality, final live weights and activity levels were not significantly different between stocking densities. The proportion of time birds were sitting/lying increased in general with age from about 56% to 82%, probably due to their rapid growth. Nevertheless, at the lower stocking densities there was only in single cases. Moreover, significantly more footpads showed medium grade alterations under higher density conditions; high grade alterations were also different between 35 kg/m2 and 40 kg/m2. Walking ability was only different between the lowest and the two higher densities. Altogether results reflect behavioural restriction at the higher stocking densities with increased risks for footpad alterations and lameness. In order to reach clear animal welfare improvements, e. g. in the framework of animal welfare labeling, a considerable lowering of the stocking density is consequently one important measure. However, this recommendation should be further validated under commercial conditions.

Hock lesion epidemiology in cubicle housed dairy cows across two breeds, farming systems and countries.

This cross-sectional study examined various aspects of cubicle design and management in terms of their potential as risk factors for hock lesions, using an epidemiological approach. Cubicle dairy farms in Germany and Austria with Holstein Friesian or Simmental cows were visited during the winter housing season. 105 farms and 3691 cows were included in the analysis which consisted of three steps: bifactorial regression, regression trees and multiple linear regression. The mean farm prevalence of hock lesions, i.e. scabs, wounds, and swellings was 50%, with a range from 0 to 100%. The final model contained eight factors which were largely related to lying comfort and explained 75% of the variance. The presence of a curb turned out to be the most influential beneficial factor. Additionally, there were fewer hock lesions when cows were housed with deep bedded cubicles compared to cubicles without deep bedding. Other factors in the regression model were softness and length of the lying surface and height of free space under cubicle partitions, the proportion of overconditioned cows and a variable encoding three different combinations of region, husbandry system (organic and conventional) and breed. Independently from the risk factor model hock lesions were positively correlated with lameness at herd level as well as at animal level. This probably results from related risk factors for both conditions. It can be concluded that lying comfort of dairy cows should be improved in order to prevent hock lesions. In addition, preventive measures for hock lesions at the same time have a potential of reducing lameness and thus to improve cow welfare in several aspects.

Risk factors for lameness in cubicle housed Austrian Simmental dairy cows.

Austrian dairy farming is characterised by predominant use of Simmental cows on small-scale farms. Our aim was to identify lameness risk factors related to housing and management in cubicle housed Austrian dairy cows. Furthermore, we used animal-based parameters (ABP) as integrated measures of cubicle quality and feeding management. The first author visited 30 farms in eastern Austria with 24-54 cows (mean=35) in the milking herd during winter housing period, and collected data on housing, management, behaviour, and lameness via direct observations and an interview (part of Welfare Quality project). Mean lameness prevalence was 31% (range 6-70%). Data were analysed using logistic regression with generalised estimating equations (GEE). The final model was based on 832 cows and included six risk variables, five ABP, and the significant confounders 'county' and 'lactation number'. Odds for lameness increased with decreasing lying comfort, except for cubicle width. The following lying-related factors were significant in the final model (odds ratios (OR) in brackets): mats/mattresses as opposed to deep bedded cubicle base (1.61), length of lying area (OR 186-191 vs. <178 cm=0.72) and cubicle width (1.18). Lying-related ABP included abnormal lying behaviour (1.36), cow comfort index (0.76), and duration of rising (2.17). Other significant housing and management characteristics included slatted flooring (1.31), herd size (0.63), and no access to an outdoor loafing area (0.57). Regarding metabolic parameters, cows with a body condition score >3.5 had at least 0.39 lower odds of being lame, while cows with suboptimal milk protein content (<3.2% or >3.8%) had 1.37 times higher odds. Odds for lameness clearly increased with age (OR lactation > or =4 vs. 1=3.38). In sum, lying comfort and nutrition are key areas for lameness prevention on modern dairy farms in Austria with herd sizes above 30 cows.