Spatio-temporal dynamics of Plasmodium falciparum transmission within a spatial unit on the Colombian Pacific Coast.

As malaria control programmes concentrate their efforts towards malaria elimination a better understanding of malaria transmission patterns at fine spatial resolution units becomes necessary. Defining spatial units that consider transmission heterogeneity, human movement and migration will help to set up achievable malaria elimination milestones and guide the creation of efficient operational administrative control units. Using a combination of genetic and epidemiological data we defined a malaria transmission unit as the area contributing 95% of malaria cases diagnosed at the catchment facility located in the town of Guapi in the South Pacific Coast of Colombia. We provide data showing that P. falciparum malaria transmission is heterogeneous in time and space and analysed, using topological data analysis, the spatial connectivity, at the micro epidemiological level, between parasite populations circulating within the unit. To illustrate the necessity to evaluate the efficacy of malaria control measures within the transmission unit in order to increase the efficiency of the malaria control effort, we provide information on the size of the asymptomatic reservoir, the nature of parasite genotypes associated with drug resistance as well as the frequency of the Pfhrp2/3 deletion associated with false negatives when using Rapid Diagnostic Tests.

Impacto de la ivermectina sobre las geohelmintiasis en el foco de oncocercosis en Colombia / The effect of ivermectin on geohelminth frequency (i.e. as used in the onchocerciasis control program in Colombia)

Objetivo: Evaluar el efecto de la ivermectina sobre la frecuencia de infección por geohelmintos en una población colombiana incluida en el Programa para la Eliminación de la Oncocercosis en las Américas. Métodos: Estudio de evaluación de impacto con enfoque longitudinal como punto referente inicial, la población de Naicioná (1996) y como control, sujetos de la misma población (2008). Para el enfoque transversal se usó como referente la población de Naicioná en 2008 y como control, sujetos de Dos Quebradas en 2008. El procesamiento de las muestras de materia fecal se hizo por Ritchie-Frick modificado. Resultados: Ascaris lumbricoides fue el parásito más frecuente 49,6 % (60/121; IC 95 %:37,8-63,8) en Naicioná y 47,4 % (36/76; IC 95 %: 33,2-65,6) en Dos Quebradas. El mayor efecto de la ivermectina en mayores de 5 años fue la disminución del riesgo de infección, para Trichiuris trichiura, de 86 % (IC95 %:74-93) en la evaluación longitudinal y 63 % (IC 95 %:24-82) en la evaluación transversal. La disminución en la frecuencia de Strongyloides stercoralis fue 93 % (IC 95 %: 45-99), en la evaluación longitudinal y 85 % (IC95 %:-031 - 99) en la evaluación transversal. Conclusiones: El uso de la ivermectina en el contexto del Programa para la Eliminación de la Oncocercosis en las Américas no es suficiente para el control de la morbilidad de todas las geohelmintiasis, se requiere de programas integrales que incluyan los componentes de educación y saneamiento básico.

Objective: Evaluating the effect of ivermectin on soil-transmitted helminthes (STH) infection frequency in a Colombian population included in the Onchocerciasis Elimination Program for the Americas (OEPA). Methods: This was an impact evaluation study which adopted a longitudinal approach using the population of Naicioná (1996) as baseline for comparison to people from the same population as controls (2008). The cross-sectional approach involved comparing the reference population of Naicioná (2008) to the population of Dos Quebradas (2008) used as controls. Fecal samples were processed by a modified Ritchie-Frick method. Results: Ascaris lumbricoides was the most frequently found parasite in Naicioná (60/121; 49.6 %: 37.8-63.895%CI) and in Dos Quebradas (36/76; 47.4 %: 33.2-65.6 95 % CI). Ivermectin’s main effect on the population aged over 5 years was a decreased risk of Trichiuris trichiura infection in both longitudinal assessment (86 % reduction: 74-93 95 % CI) and cross-sectional assessment (63 %:24-82 95 % CI). A 93 % reduction (45-99 95 % CI) in Strongyloides stercoralis frequency was found in longitudinal assessment, compared to 85 % in cross-sectional assessment (-031-99 95 % CI). Conclusions: Ivermectin use in the OEPA is not sufficient for STH morbidity control. Integrated programs including education and basic sanitation are required.

[The effect of ivermectin on geohelminth frequency (i.e. as used in the onchocerciasis control program in Colombia)]. / Impacto de la ivermectina sobre las geohelmintiasis en el foco de oncocercosis en Colombia.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluating the effect of ivermectin on soil-transmitted helminthes (STH) infection frequency in a Colombian population included in the Onchocerciasis Elimination Program for the Americas (OEPA). METHODS: This was an impact evaluation study which adopted a longitudinal approach using the population of Naicioná (1996) as baseline for comparison to people from the same population as controls (2008). The cross-sectional approach involved comparing the reference population of Naicioná (2008) to the population of Dos Quebradas (2008) used as controls. Fecal samples were processed by a modified Ritchie-Frick method. RESULTS: Ascaris lumbricoides was the most frequently found parasite in Naicioná (60/121; 49.6 %: 37.8-63.895%CI) and in Dos Quebradas (36/76; 47.4 %: 33.2-65.6 95 % CI). Ivermectin's main effect on the population aged over 5 years was a decreased risk of Trichiuris trichiura infection in both longitudinal assessment (86 % reduction: 74-93 95 % CI) and cross-sectional assessment (63 %:24-82 95 % CI). A 93 % reduction (45-99 95 % CI) in Strongyloides stercoralis frequency was found in longitudinal assessment, compared to 85 % in cross-sectional assessment (-031-99 95 % CI). CONCLUSIONS: Ivermectin use in the OEPA is not sufficient for STH morbidity control. Integrated programs including education and basic sanitation are required.

Genotipificación de plasmodium falciparum por PCR múltiple por medio de los genes msp1, msp2 y glurp, en cuatro localidades de Colombia / Genotypic survery of plasmodium falciparum based on the msp1, msp2 and glurp genes by multiplex PCR

Introducción. La diversidad genética de Plasmodium falciparum constituye un obstáculo para el éxito de la terapia antipalúdica, pues le permite al parásito evadir la respuesta inmunitaria del huésped, lo cual genera cambios en su composición antigénica y resistencia a los medicamentos antipalúdicos.Objetivo. Estudiar la diversidad genética de P. falciparum procedente de cuatro localidades colombianas mediante el análisis de los genes polimórficos msp1, msp2 y glurp. Materiales y métodos. Se genotipificaron 81 muestras mediante PCR múltiple de pacientes infectados con P. falciparum, procedentes de Tierralta (Córdoba), Inírida (Guainía), La Carpa (Guaviare) y Casuarito (Vichada).Resultados. Para el gen msp1 se detectó MAD20 en todas las muestras analizadas. Para el gen msp2 se halló con mayor frecuencia la familia alélica IC (96,3%) comparada con FC (4,9%). En ambas familias se evidenció polimorfismo de tamaño, y se encontraron bandas en un rango entre 467 y 513 pares de bases (pb) para IC y entre 286 y 300 pb para FC. Para el gen glurp se detectaron diferentes tamaños de productos de PCR, los cuales se agruparon en cinco genotipos: I (600-699 pb) 2,5%, II (700-799 pb) 19,8%, III (800-899 pb) 72,8%, IV (900-999 pb) 1,2% y V (1.000-1.099 pb) 3,7%.Conclusiones. Nuestros resultados demuestran que el marcador molecular msp1 no proporciona información útil para diferenciar las poblaciones parasitarias de P. falciparum. El gen msp2 es apropiado para evaluar la diversidad genética, pero requiere ensayos más finos que permitan diferenciar claramente el polimorfismo de tamaño en las dos familias. Los resultados obtenidos con el gen glurp evidenciaron una gran diversidad genética en las poblaciones de P. falciparum que circulan en el país y sugieren que este gen puede ser útil para diferenciar nuevas infecciones de infecciones recurrentes o recrudecimientos.

Introduction. The genetic diversity of Plasmodium falciparum has been one of the major obstacles for the success of anti-malaria drug therapy. It provides the parasite an ability to evade the host’s immune response by generating changes in its antigenic composition and resistance to antimalarial drugs.Objective. The genetic diversity of P.falciparum was characterized in 4 Colombian localities through the analysis of polymorphic genes. Materials and methods. Eighty-one samples were obtained from patients with uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria and screened for polymorphic variants of msp1, msp2 (merozoite surface proteins) and glurp (glutamate-rich protein) with a multiplex PCR assay. The geographic regions sampled were Tierralta (Córdoba), in northwestern Colombia and in the Orinoco river watershed of eastern Colombia-- Inírida (Guainía), La Carpa (Guaviare), and Casuarito (Vichada). Results. The MAD20 variant was detected in all samples analyzed for the msp1 gene. For the msp 2 gene, the IC allelic family was found in 96.3% of the samples as compared to 4.9% of the samples with the FC family. Both families showed size polymorphism with bands between 467 and 513 basepairs (bp) for IC and 286 and 300 bp for FC. PCR products of differing sizes were detected for the glurp gene and grouped into 5 size classes: I (600-699 bp) 2.5%, II (700-799 bp) 19.8%, III (800-899 bp) 72.8%, IV (900-999 bp) 1.2% and V (1000-1099 bp) 3.7%.Conclusions. The msp1 molecular marker did not provide information for differentiating P. falciparum parasite populations. The msp 2 gene was more suitable for studying the genetic diversity, however, further studies are required to identify polymorphisms within the two allelic families. The glurp gene showed a great genetic diversity of circulating P. falciparum populations, and suggested that this gene may be useful for distinguishing between recrudescence and reinfection.

[Point mutations in dihydrofolate reductase and dihydropteroate synthase genes of Plasmodium falciparum from three endemic malaria regions in Colombia]. / Mutaciones puntuales en los genes dhfr y dhps de Plasmodium falciparum de tres regiones endémicas para malaria en Colombia.

INTRODUCTION: Plasmodium falciparum has the ability to counter the antiparasitic activity of sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine by progressively accumulating mutations in the dihydrofolate reductase (dhfr) and dihydropteroate synthase (dhps) genes. These mutations gradually increase the resistance of the parasite to these drugs and lead to therapeutic failure. OBJECTIVES: To determine the frequency of mutations associated with resistance to sulphadoxine and pyrimethamine in the dhfr and dhps genes of P. falciparum in samples from patients in three endemic zones of Colombia -La Carpa, Guaviare; Casuarito, Vichada; and Tierralta and Puerto Libertador, Córdoba. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty samples were selected from patients with uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria. The frequency profiles of the 108, 59 and 164 alleles of dhfr were obtained by application of an allele-specific polymerase chain reaction, whereas the other alleles (alleles 51 of the dhfr gene and 436, 437 and 540 of dhps) were obtained by polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism. RESULTS: The 108N and 51I mutations in the dhfr gene were found in all of the 40 samples. No mutant alleles were found in the 59 and 164 codons of the dhfr gene, or in the 436 codon of the dhps gene. The 437G mutation was observed in 36 samples and the wild-type allele was present in 3 from Tierralta and one from La Carpa. The 540E mutation was only detected in two samples from Casuarito. CONCLUSIONS: The 108N, 51I and 437G mutations prevail in the populations of P. falciparum, indicating a cumulative effect of mutations and the need to continue surveillance for other changes which can lead to the total loss of the efficacy of sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine.

[Genotypic survey of Plasmodium falciparum based on the msp1, msp2 and glurp genes by multiplex PCR]. / Genotipificación de Plasmodium falciparum por PCR múltiple por medio de los genes msp1, msp2 y glurp, en cuatro localidades de Colombia.

INTRODUCTION: The genetic diversity of Plasmodium falciparum has been one of the major obstacles for the success of anti-malaria drug therapy. It provides the parasite an ability to evade the host's immune response by generating changes in its antigenic composition and resistance to antimalarial drugs. OBJECTIVE: The genetic diversity of P.falciparum was characterized in 4 Colombian localities through the analysis of polymorphic genes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Eighty-one samples were obtained from patients with uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria and screened for polymorphic variants of msp1, msp2 (merozoite surface proteins) and glurp (glutamate-rich protein) with a multiplex PCR assay. The geographic regions sampled were Tierralta (Córdoba), in northwestern Colombia and in the Orinoco river watershed of eastern Colombia--Inírida (Guainía), La Carpa (Guaviare), and Casuarito (Vichada). RESULTS: The MAD20 variant was detected in all samples analyzed for the msp1 gene. For the msp2 gene, the IC allelic family was found in 96.3% of the samples as compared to 4.9% of the samples with the FC family. Both families showed size polymorphism with bands between 467 and 513 basepairs (bp) for IC and 286 and 300 bp for FC. PCR products of differing sizes were detected for the glurp gene and grouped into 5 size classes: I (600-699 bp) 2.5%, II (700-799 bp) 19.8%, III (800-899 bp) 72.8%, IV (900-999 bp) 1.2% and V (1000-1099 bp) 3.7%. CONCLUSIONS: The msp1 molecular marker did not provide information for differentiating P. falciparum parasite populations. The msp2 gene was more suitable for studying the genetic diversity, however, further studies are required to identify polymorphisms within the two allelic families. The glurp gene showed a great genetic diversity of circulating P. falciparum populations, and suggested that this gene may be useful for distinguishing between recrudescence and reinfection.

Mutaciones puntuales en los genes dhfr y dhps de Plasmodium falciparum de tres regiones endémicas para malaria en Colombia / Point mutations in dihydrofolate reductase and dihydropteroate synthase genes of Plasmodium falciparum from three endemic malaria regions in Colombia

Introducción. La acumulación progresiva de mutaciones en los genes dhfr y dhps lleva al parásito Plasmodium falciparum a evadir la acción de la sulfadoxina-pirimetamina, situación que aumenta el nivel de resistencia del parásito a estos medicamentos y conlleva a la aparición de fallas del tratamiento. Objetivos. Determinar la frecuencia de mutaciones en los genes dhfr y dhps de P. falciparum asociadas con resistencia a sulfadoxina-pirimetamina, en muestras de pacientes de tres zonas endémicas de Colombia: La Carpa, Guaviare; Casuarito, Vichada; Tierralta y Puerto Libertador, Córdoba. Materiales y métodos. Se incluyeron 40 muestras de pacientes con malaria no complicada por P. falciparum. Los alelos 108, 59 y 164 del gen dhfr se analizaron mediante PCR específica de alelo y los alelos 51 del gen dhfr y 436, 437 y 540 del gen dhps por PCR y restricción enzimática. Resultados. En el gen dhfr encontramos en todas las muestras las mutaciones asparagina 108 e isoleucina 51. No se detectaron alelos mutantes en los codones 59 y 164 del gen dhfr, ni en el codón 436 del gen dhps. La mutación glicina 437 estuvo presente en 36 muestras y el alelo silvestre alanina en tres de Tierralta y una de La Carpa. La mutación ácido glutámico 540 sólo se halló en Casuarito. Conclusiones. En las poblaciones de P. falciparum analizadas prevalecen los alelos asparagina 108, isoleucina 51 y glicina 437, lo que indica un efecto acumulativo de mutaciones y la necesidad de vigilar la aparición de nuevos alelos mutantes que puedan conducir a la pérdida total de la eficacia de la sulfadoxina-pirimetamina.

Introduction. Plasmodium falciparum has the ability to counter the antiparasitic activity of sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine by progressively accumulating mutations in the dihydrofolate reductase (dhfr) and dihydropteroate synthase (dhps) genes. These mutations gradually increase the resistance of the parasite to these drugs and lead to therapeutic failure. Objectives. To determine the frequency of mutations associated with resistance to sulphadoxine and pyrimethamine in the dhfr and dhps genes of P. falciparum in samples from patients in three endemic zones of Colombia -La Carpa, Guaviare; Casuarito, Vichada; and Tierralta and Puerto Libertador, Córdoba. Materials and methods. Forty samples were selected from patients with uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria. The frequency profiles of the 108, 59 and 164 alleles of dhfr were obtained by application of an allele-specific polymerase chain reaction, whereas the other alleles (alleles 51 of the dhfr gene and 436, 437 and 540 of dhps) were obtained by polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism. Results. The 108N and 51I mutations in the dhfr gene were found in all of the 40 samples. No mutant alleles were found in the 59 and 164 codons of the dhfr gene, or in the 436 codon of the dhps gene. The 437G mutation was observed in 36 samples and the wild-type allele was present in 3 from Tierralta and one from La Carpa. The 540E mutation was only detected in two samples from Casuarito. Conclusions. The 108N, 51I and 437G mutations prevail in the populations of P. falciparum, indicating a cumulative effect of mutations and the need to continue surveillance for other changes which can lead to the total loss of the efficacy of sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine.

[Efficacy of the amodiaquine+sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine combination and of chloroquine for the treatment of malaria in Córdoba, Colombia, 2006]. / Eficacia de la combinación amodiaquina más sulfadoxina-pirimetamina y de la cloroquina para el tratamiento del paludismo en Córdoba, Colombia, 2006.

INTRODUCTION: The decrease in the efficacy of antimalarial drugs in the world and in Colombia hampers its control. OBJECTIVE: The in vivo therapeutic efficacy of the amodiaquine+sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine combination was evaluated in the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria and of chloroquine for P. vivax malaria. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From May to November 2006, in vivo efficacy studies of malaria treatments were undertaken in Tierralta, Córdoba, northeastern Colombia. Standard protocols were followed as recommended by the World Health Organization/Panamerican Health Organization, with some modifications. Patients older than two years with single P. falciparum or P. vivax infection, with asexual parasitemia between 500 and 50,000 parasites/microl, were selected according to established inclusion and exclusion criteria. Supervised treatment was administered, and clinical and parasitological follow-up was carried out on days 0 (inclusion), 1, 2, 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28. The outcome was defined as adequate clinical and parasitological response, early therapeutic failure, or late therapeutic failure. RESULTS: Of 53 subjects selected, 50 (94.3%; CI 70%-100%) presented adequate clinical and parasitological response to the amodiaquine+sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine treatment for uncomplicated falciparum malaria. One patient presented early therapeutic failure, and two developed late therapeutic failure. All of the 50 patients (95%CI: 74%-100%) in the invivo efficacy study of chloroquine for vivax malaria presented adequate clinical and parasitological response. CONCLUSION: In Cordoba, the amodiaquine+sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine combination and chloroquine show a high efficacy for the treatment of uncomplicated falciparum and vivax malaria, respectively.

Eficacia de la combinación amodiaquina más sulfadoxina-pirimetamina y de la cloroquina para el tratamiento del paludismo en Córdoba, Colombia, 2006 / Efficacy of the amodiaquine+sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine combination and of chloroquine for the treatment of malaria in Córdoba, Colombia, 2006

Introducción. La disminución de la eficacia de los medicamentos antipalúdicos en el mundo y en Colombia, dificulta el control de la enfermedad. Objetivo. Evaluar la eficacia terapéutica in vivo de la combinación amodiaquina más sulfadoxina-pirimetamina para el tratamiento del paludismo no complicado por Plasmodium falciparum y de la cloroquina para el tratamiento del paludismo por P. vivax en Tierralta, Córdoba. Materiales y métodos. Durante el período de mayo a noviembre de 2006, se realizaron estudios de eficacia in vivo siguiendo los protocolos estandarizados por la Organización Mundial de la Salud y la Organización Panamericana de la Salud, con algunas modificaciones. Se estudiaron pacientes mayores de dos años, con parasitemia entre 500 y 50.000 formas asexuales/µl, seleccionados conforme a los criterios de inclusión y exclusión previamente definidos. Se administró tratamiento supervisado y se realizó seguimiento clínico y parasitológico en los días 0 (inclusión), 1, 2, 3, 7, 14, 21 y 28. El desenlace se definió como respuesta clínica y parasitológica adecuada, fracaso terapéutico precoz o fracaso tardío al tratamiento. Resultados. De los pacientes evaluados, 50/53 (94,3 por ciento) (IC95 por ciento: 70 por ciento-100 por ciento) presentaron respuesta clínica y parasitológica adecuada al tratamiento con amodiaquina más sulfadoxina-pirimetamina para paludismo no complicado por P. falciparum, un paciente presentó fracaso terapéutico precoz y dos presentaron fracaso terapéutico tardío. Los 50 pacientes evaluados (100 por ciento) (IC95 por ciento: 74 por ciento-100 por ciento) presentaron respuesta clínica y parasitológica adecuada al tratamiento con cloroquina para el paludismo por P. vivax. Conclusiones. En Córdoba, la combinación amodiaquina más sulfadoxina-pirimetamina y la cloroquina son eficaces para el tratamiento del paludismo no complicado por P. falciparum y por P. vivax, respectivamente.

[Acute Chagas disease in Colombia: a rarely suspected disease. Report of 10 cases presented during the 2002-2005 period]. / Enfermedad de Chagas aguda en Colombia, una entidad poco sospechada. Informe de 10 casos presentados en el periodo 2002 a 2005.

INTRODUCTION: In Colombia, reported cases of acute Chagas disease are sporadic. OBJECTIVE: Ten cases were described that had been reported to the Parasitology Laboratory of the Colombian National Health Institute between December 2002 and November 2005. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Information from clinical records, epidemiological report forms, laboratory and blood tests was collated. In addition the following data were compiled: demographic variables, clinical findings, results of laboratory tests and other exams (such as peripheral blood smears), IFAT for IgG antibodies, isolation in culture medium, inoculation in mice, polymerase chain reaction tests and isoenzyme eletrophoresis. RESULTS: All the cases presented in known endemic areas for Chagas disease transmission in Colombia. Three cases were from Putumayo Province, two each from the provinces of Arauca, Casanare, Norte de Santander and one from Santander Province. The probable mode of transmission was vector-borne. Seven cases presented in adults aged 18 to 50, three in children aged 6 months to 2 years. Seven were male and three were female. The most frequent symptom was fever in nine cases. Signs of portal of entry were rare; only one patient presented a possible Romahia's sign. Three patients presented myocarditis, two acute cardiac failure and one cardiac tamponade. Parasitemia was evident in nine cases; five had positive IgG serological tests; five cases were confirmed through parasite isolation; isoenzyme electrophoresis showed Trypanosoma cruzi group I. CONCLUSIONS: Clinical variability prevailed. In none of the cases was a clinical diagnosis suspected. The diagnosis was made and confirmed through laboratory tests alone. The results highlight the importance of including this disease in the differential diagnosis of febrile syndrome in endemic regions due to its good response to etiological treatment and thereby preventing its progression to the chronic phase.

Perfiles clínicos del paludismo no complicado por Plasmodium falciparum en Córdoba, Colombia / Clinical profiles of patients with uncomplicated Plasmodum falciparum malaria in northwestern Colombia

Introducción. Pocos estudios describen el conjunto de características clínicas de los pacientes con paludismo no complicado por Plasmodium falciparum en Córdoba, Colombia. Objetivo. Describir diferentes perfiles de pacientes con paludismo no complicado por P. falciparum, tratados con cloroquina, en Tierralta y Puerto Libertador, Córdoba, a partir de sus variables clínicas, epidemiológicas y de laboratorio. Materiales y métodos. Se evaluaron pacientes con paludismo no complicado por P. falciparum según los protocolos estandarizados por la Organización Panamericana de la Salud y se recolectó información clínica y parasitológica. Se utilizó análisis multivariado por correspondencias múltiples para describir diferentes perfiles de pacientes con paludismo no complicado por P. falciparum, tratados con cloroquina. Resultados. Se evaluaron 127 pacientes, 105 de ellos con seguimiento completo por 14 días; 6,7% presentó respuesta clínica adecuada. Entre 80% y 98% de los pacientes refirió, por lo menos, uno de los síntomas más frecuentes del cuadro clínico habitual del paludismo no complicado y 80,3% presentó decaimiento como signo clínico más frecuentemente encontrado. El análisis multivariado permitió agrupar las variables en cinco perfiles distintos de presentaciones clínicas que se describen en detalle. Conclusiones. Existe una alta frecuencia (93,3%) de fallas a la cloroquina como tratamiento para el paludismo no complicado por P. falciparum en esta región. Las agrupaciones hechas con el análisis por correspondencias múltiples mostraron similitudes con las descripciones clásicas encontradas en la literatura sobre las formas de presentación clínica de la malaria no complicada. La baja frecuencia de individuos con respuesta clínica adecuada impidió el análisis de asociación. El análisis multivariado involucra variables relacionadas con aspectos epidemiológicos y clínicos y permite una interpretación más integral de los hallazgos obtenidos.

Introduction. Few studies describe the clinical presentations of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in the province of Córdoba in an endemic area of northwestern Colombia. Objective. Profiles of patients with uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria were described from two twons of Córdoba, Tierrata and Puerto Libertador, based on clinical, epidemiological and laboratory variables. Materials and methods. Patients were examined according to standard WHO/PAHO protocols for assessment of antimalarial drug efficacy. Clinical data and parasitological information was collected as well. A multiple correspondence multivariate analysis was used to compare the profiles of 127 patients with uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria.Results. Of the 127patients,105 completed the 14-day follow-up and 7 had adequate clinical response. Between 80% and 98% of patients exhibited at least one of the most frequent symptoms of uncomplicated malaria, and 80.3% had asthenia as the most frequent symptom. The multivariate analysis grouped the variables into five distinguishable clusters of clinical profiles. These groups showed similarities with the classical clinical descriptions of uncomplicated malaria encountered in the literature. The low frequency of patients with adequate clinical response hampered the association analysis. Conclusions. In Córdoba, therapeutic failure to chloroquine treatment is high in treating uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Multivariate analysis summarized variables related to epidemiological and clinical aspects and permitted a more objective approach to the interpretation of the findings.

[Soil-transmitted helminth trends and prevalence in La Virgen, Colombia 1995-2005]. / Tendencia y Prevalencia de las Geohelmintiasis en La Virgen, Colombia 1995-2005.

OBJECTIVE: Describing soil-transmitted helminthiasis prevalence and trends in children aged less than 15 in the village of La Virgen, Cundinamarca. METHODS: Three non-random surveys were carried out on school-children aged 0 to 15 years. Intestinal parasitism was determined In the three cross-sectional studies by direct examination of fecal samples and modified Ritchie-Frick concentration method. Intestinal parasitism distribution was analysed and the trend during 1995-2005 described. RESULTS: The prevalence of intestinal parasitism in children aged less than 5 increased from 62,5 % in 1995 to 66,7 % in 2001 and to 69 % in 2005; soil-transmitted helminthiasis prevalence in this age group was 37,5 % in 1995, 23,6 % in 2001 and 27,6 % in 2005. The prevalence of intestinal parasitism for children aged over 5 increased from 86,2 % in 1995 to 89,1 % in 2005; soil-transmitted helminthiasis prevalence was 62,9 % in 1995, 39,8 % in 2001 and 23,9 % in 2005. CONCLUSIONS: Soil-transmitted helminthiasis was endemic and presented high prevalence during the study period. Effective control measures are needed to prevent intestinal parasitism in pre-school and schoolchildren.

Tendencia y Prevalencia de las Geohelmintiasis en La Virgen, Colombia 1995-2005 / Soil-transmitted helminth trends and prevalence in La Virgen, Colombia 1995-2005

Objetivos:Describir la tendencia de la prevalencia de las geohelmintiasis en los menores de 15 años en La Virgen, Cundinamarca desde 1995 al 2005. Métodos:Se realizaron tres muestras no aleatorias de escolares entre 0 y 15 años de edad, en los años 1995, 2001 y 2005. En los tres cortes se midió la infección por parásitos intestinales mediante examen directo y la técnica de concentración de Ritchie-Frick modificado. Se analizó la distribución del parasitismo intestinal y se describió la tendencia desde 1995 hasta el 2005. Resultados:La prevalencia del parasitismo intestinal en los menores de 5 años pasó de 62,5 por ciento en 1995 a 69,0 por ciento en el 2005; la geohelmintiasis en este grupo de edad era de 37,5 por ciento en 1995, 23,6 por ciento en el 2001 y 27,6 por ciento en el 2005. Para los mayores de 5 años, la prevalencia de parasitismo intestinal pasó de 86,2 por ciento en 1995 a 89,1 por ciento el 2005 y para las geohelmintiasis de 62,9 por ciento en 1995, 39,8 por ciento en el 2001 y 23,9 por ciento en el 2005. Conclusiones: Se encontró que en esta región las geohelmintiasis son endemicas y presentan prevalencias altas en el periodo de estudio. Se insiste en la necesidad de diseñar medidas efectivas de control para todos los niños en edad preescolar y escolar.

Objective:Describing soil-transmitted helminthiasis prevalence and trends in children aged less than 15 in the village of La Virgen, Cundinamarca. Methods:Three non-random surveys were carried out on school-children aged 0 to 15 years. Intestinal parasitism was determined In the three cross-sectional studies by direct examination of fecal samples and modified Ritchie-Frick concentration method. Intestinal parasitism distribution was analysed and the trend during 1995-2005 described. Results:The prevalence of intestinal parasitism in children aged less than 5 increased from 62,5 percent in 1995 to 66,7 percent in 2001 and to 69 percent in 2005; soil-transmitted helminthiasis prevalence in this age group was 37,5 percent in 1995, 23,6 percent in 2001 and 27,6 percent in 2005. The prevalence of intestinal parasitism for children aged over 5 increased from 86,2 percent in 1995 to 89,1 percent in 2005; soil-transmitted helminthiasis prevalence was 62,9 percent in 1995, 39,8 percent in 2001 and 23,9 percent in 2005. Conclusions: Soil-transmitted helminthiasis was endemic and presented high prevalence during the study period. Effective control measures are needed to prevent intestinal parasitism in pre-school and schoolchildren.

[Clinical profiles of patients with uncomplicated Plasmodum falciparum malaria in northwestern Colombia]. / Perfiles clínicos del paludismo no complicado por Plasmodium falciparum en Córdoba, Colombia.

INTRODUCTION: Few studies describe the clinical presentations of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in the province of Córdoba in an endemic area of northwestern Colombia. OBJECTIVE: Profiles of patients with uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria were described from two twons of Córdoba, Tierrata and Puerto Libertador, based on clinical, epidemiological and laboratory variables. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients were examined according to standard WHO/PAHO protocols for assessment of antimalarial drug efficacy. Clinical data and parasitological information was collected as well. A multiple correspondence multivariate analysis was used to compare the profiles of 127 patients with uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. RESULTS: Of the 127 patients,105 completed the 14-day follow-up and 7 had adequate clinical response. Between 80% and 98% of patients exhibited at least one of the most frequent symptoms of uncomplicated malaria, and 80.3% had asthenia as the most frequent symptom. The multivariate analysis grouped the variables into five distinguishable clusters of clinical profiles. These groups showed similarities with the classical clinical descriptions of uncomplicated malaria encountered in the literature. The low frequency of patients with adequate clinical response hampered the association analysis. CONCLUSIONS: In Córdoba, therapeutic failure to chloroquine treatment is high in treating uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Multivariate analysis summarized variables related to epidemiological and clinical aspects and permitted a more objective approach to the interpretation of the findings.

[Genotyping of the Plasmodium falciparum msp1 (block 2) and dhfr (codon 108) genes in field samples collected in four endemic Colombian localities]. / Genotipificación de los genes msp1 (bloque 2) y dhfr (codón108) de Plasmodium falciparum en muestras de campo recolectadas en cuatro localidades endémicas de Colombia.

INTRODUCTION: Plasmodium falciparum is a highly polymorphic parasite, which allows it to evade the host's immune response, spread drug resistance and favours transmission. OBJECTIVES: To analyse the genetic diversity of P. falciparum populations in samples from four endemic localities in Colombia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 123 blood samples were collected on filter paper from patients with non-complicated P. falciparum malaria during 2002 to 2004. The samples were genotyped using polymerase chain reaction with specific primers for the polymorphic region of block 2 of the msp1 gene and the 108 codon of the dhfr gene. RESULTS: In msp1 block 2, 95.9% (118/123; 95% CI: 90.8-98.7) of the samples harboured MAD20; 6.5% K1 (8/123; 95% CI: 2.8-12.4) and 2.4% RO33 (3/123; 95% CI: 0.5-6.9). For the dhfrgene the mutant allele N 108 was found in all the samples amplified, T 108 in 3.2% and the wild type S108 in 34.1%. Taking together all the results from both genes, 61.8% (76/123; 95% CI: 52.6-70.4) of the samples were simple infections and 38.2% (47/123; 95% CI: 29.6-47.4) were mixed infections. MAD20/N108-S108 (30.1%) was the most frequent combination among the latter. CONCLUSIONS: Simple infections, i.e, a single allelic type in each one of the genes studied, prevailed among the circulating parasite populations. In this study the genetic composition of P. falciparum parasite populations was very homogeneous.

Genotipificación de los genes msp1 (bloque 2) y dhfr (codón108)de Plasmodium falciparum en muestras de campo recolectadas en cuatro localidades endémicas de Colombia / Genotyping of the Plasmodium falciparum msp1 (block 2) and dhfr (codon 108) genes in field samples collected in four endemic Colombian localities

Introducción. Plasmodium falciparum es un parásito altamente polimórfico, lo cual le permite evadir la respuesta inmune del hospedero, diseminar la resistencia a medicamentos y favorecer la transmisión. Objetivos. Analizar la diversidad genética de las poblaciones de P. falciparum en muestras de cuatro zonas endémicas de malaria en Colombia. Materiales y métodos. Se incluyeron muestras de sangre recolectadas en papel de filtro de123 pacientes con malaria no complicada por P. falciparum durante los años 2002 a 2004; la genotipificación se realizó mediante reacción en cadena de la polimerasa con iniciadores específicos para los marcadores moleculares de la región polimórfica del bloque 2 del gen msp1 y del codón 108 de dhfr. Resultados. En el bloque 2 del gen msp1 se detectó MAD20 en 95,9 por ciento (118/123; IC 95 por ciento: 90,8 a 98,7), K1 en 6,5 por ciento (8/123; IC 95 por ciento: 2,8 a 12,4) y RO33 en 2,4 por ciento (3/123; IC 95 por ciento: 0,5 a 6,9) de las muestras. Para el gen dhfr, el alotipo mutante N108 se detectó en todas las muestras analizadas y el alotipo T108 en 3,2 por ciento (4/123; IC 95 por ciento: 0,9 a 8,1); el alotipo silvestre S108 se encontró en 34,1 por ciento (42/123; IC 95 por ciento: 25,8 a 43,2). Al combinar los resultados de ambos genes, el 61,8 por ciento (76/123; IC 95 por ciento: 52,6 a 70,4) de las muestras correspondieron a infecciones simples y el 38,2 por ciento (47/123; IC 95 por ciento: 29,6 a 47,4) a infecciones mixtas, siendo MAD20/N108-S108 la combinación más frecuente entre estas últimas (30,1 por ciento). Conclusiones. Las infecciones simples, o sea, la presencia de un solo alelo en cada uno de los genes, predominaron en las muestras estudiadas; las poblaciones de parásitos analizadas fueron muy homogéneas en su composición genética.