Concurrent intestinal plasmablastic lymphoma and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma with a clonal relationship: a case report and literature review.

Herein, we report a case of plasmablastic lymphoma (PBL) and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) that occurred concurrently in the large intestine. An 84-year-old female presented with a palpable rectal tumor and ileocecal tumor observed on imaging analyses. Endoscopic biopsy of both lesions revealed lymphomatous round cells. Hartmann's operation and ileocecal resection were performed for regional control. The ileocecal lesion consisted of a proliferation of CD20/CD79a-positive lymphoid cells, indicative of DLBCL. In contrast, the rectal tumor showed proliferation of atypical cells with pleomorphic nuclei and abundant amphophilic cytoplasm, with immunohistochemical findings of CD38/CD79a/MUM1/MYC (+) and CD20/CD3/CD138/PAX5 (-). Tumor cells were positive for Epstein-Barr virus- encoded RNA based on in situ hybridization and MYC rearrangement in fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis. These findings indicated the rectal tumor was most likely a PBL. Sequencing analysis for immunoglobulin heavy variable genes indicated a common B-cell origin of the two sets of lymphoma cells. This case report and literature review provide new insights into PBL tumorigenesis.

Isobutyric acid enhances the anti-tumour effect of anti-PD-1 antibody.

The low response rate of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) is a challenge. The efficacy of ICIs is influenced by the tumour microenvironment, which is controlled by the gut microbiota. In particular, intestinal bacteria and their metabolites, such as short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), are important regulators of cancer immunity; however, our knowledge on the effects of individual SCFAs remains limited. Here, we show that isobutyric acid has the strongest effect among SCFAs on both immune activity and tumour growth. In vitro, cancer cell numbers were suppressed by approximately 75% in humans and mice compared with those in controls. Oral administration of isobutyric acid to carcinoma-bearing mice enhanced the effect of anti-PD-1 immunotherapy, reducing tumour volume by approximately 80% and 60% compared with those in the control group and anti-PD-1 antibody alone group, respectively. Taken together, these findings may support the development of novel cancer therapies that can improve the response rate to ICIs.

Butyricimonas is a key gut microbiome component for predicting postoperative recurrence of esophageal cancer.

BACKGROUND: Recently, intestinal bacteria have attracted attention as factors affecting the prognosis of patients with cancer. However, the intestinal microbiome is composed of several hundred types of bacteria, necessitating the development of an analytical method that can allow the use of this information as a highly accurate biomarker. In this study, we investigated whether the preoperative intestinal bacterial profile in patients with esophageal cancer who underwent surgery after preoperative chemotherapy could be used as a biomarker of postoperative recurrence of esophageal cancer. METHODS: We determined the gut microbiome of the patients using 16S rRNA metagenome sequencing, followed by statistical analysis. Simultaneously, we performed a machine learning analysis using a random forest model with hyperparameter tuning and compared the data obtained. RESULTS: Statistical and machine learning analyses revealed two common bacterial genera, Butyricimonas and Actinomyces, which were abundant in cases with recurrent esophageal cancer. Butyricimonas primarily produces butyrate, whereas Actinomyces are oral bacteria whose function in the gut is unknown. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that Butyricimonas spp. may be a biomarker of postoperative recurrence of esophageal cancer. Although the extent of the involvement of these bacteria in immune regulation remains unknown, future research should investigate their presence in other pathological conditions. Such research could potentially lead to a better understanding of the immunological impact of these bacteria on patients with cancer and their application as biomarkers.

Nivolumab receptor occupancy on effector regulatory T cells predicts clinical benefit.

Immune checkpoint inhibitor discovery represents a turning point in cancer treatment. However, the response rates of solid tumors remain ~10%-30%; consequently, prognostic and immune-related adverse event (irAE) predictors are being explored. The programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) receptor occupancy (RO) of PD-1 inhibitors depends on the number of peripheral blood lymphocytes and their PD-1 expression levels, suggesting that the RO may be related to efficacy and adverse events. As PD-1 inhibition affects each T-cell subset differently, the RO of each cell population must be characterized. However, relevant data have not been reported, and the prognostic relevance of this parameter is not known. In this study, we aimed to clarify the association between the nivolumab RO in each T-cell population and patient prognosis and reveal the development of irAEs in nivolumab-treated patients. Thirty-two patients were included in the study, and the mean follow-up period was 364 days. The nivolumab RO on effector regulatory T cells (eTregs) was significantly lower in the group that presented clinical benefits, and a significant negative association was observed between PD-1 occupancy on eTregs and all-cause mortality. The results suggest that the nivolumab RO on eTregs may be a prognostic factor in PD-1 inhibitor therapy, implying that the inhibition of PD-1/PD-ligand 1 (PD-L1) signaling on eTregs may attenuate antitumor effects.

Non-classical Monocytes Enhance the Efficacy of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors on Colon Cancer in a Syngeneic Mouse Model.

BACKGROUND/AIM: The response rate to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) is approximately 10%-30% and only in a few cancer types. In the present study, we determined whether non-classical monocytes (NCMs) could enhance ICI efficacy in colon cancer using a syngeneic mouse model. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The MC38 C57BL/6 mouse colon cancer model was used. Cells collected from the bone marrow of C57BL/6 mice were cultured, and NCMs were fractionated by cell sorting and administered via the tail veins to the mice implanted with MC38 cells. The anti-mouse PD-L1 antibody was administered three times, and tumor volume and overall survival were observed. RESULTS: More tumors were eradicated and more complete response occurred, after cotreatment with ICIs and NCMs than after treatment with ICIs alone. Moreover, no efficacy was observed when NCMs were administered alone. CONCLUSION: NCMs enhance ICI efficacy. The underlying mechanisms and clinical applications will be studied in the future.

Soluble PD-L1 changes in advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients treated with PD-1 inhibitors: an individual patient data meta-analysis.

Introduction: Currently, first-line immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), including programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1) inhibitors, are utilized as monotherapy in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients with high programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) expression (≧50%). Pre-treatment or post-treatment serum soluble PD-L1 (sPD-L1) has been identified as a potential biomarker for assessing ICI efficacy through fixed-point observations. However, existing studies on sPD-L1 changes have produced inconsistent results or have had sample sizes too small to detect clinically meaningful effect sizes. To elucidate the role of sPD-L1, we conducted a collaborative individual patient data meta-analysis of PD-1 inhibitor treatments. Methods: We conducted a thorough search of articles in PubMed via Medline, Embase, Scopus, and Cochrane databases from inception to October 20, 2023. Trials were deemed eligible if they contained individual datasets for advanced NSCLC patients, including data on overall survival (OS)/progression-free survival (PFS), as well as pre- and post-treatment sPD-L1 levels after 3-4 cycles of PD-1 inhibitor treatments. Our analysis focused on patients who completed 3-4 cycles of PD-1 inhibitor treatments. The primary outcome measure was OS/PFS, and we assessed changes in sPD-L1 concentration pre- and post-treatment through ELISA analyses. Results: From our search, we identified a potential seven trials, encompassing 256 patients. Among these, two trials with 26 patients met the criteria for inclusion in our primary analyses. Over a median follow-up period of 10 months, pooled univariate analysis revealed that increases in sPD-L1 levels during PD-1 inhibitor treatment were not associated with OS (HR = 1.25; CI: 0.52-3.02)/PFS (HR = 1.42; CI: 0.61-3.30) when compared to cases with sPD-L1 decreases. Subgroup analyses indicated that the impact of sPD-L1 changes on overall mortality/progression-related mortality remained consistent regardless of gender, age, or the type of treatment (nivolumab or pembrolizumab). Conclusion: Our findings suggest that changes in sPD-L1 levels during PD-1 inhibitor treatment do not significantly influence the prognosis of advanced NSCLC patients, regardless of gender, age, or treatment type. Continuous monitoring of sPD-L1 may not offer significant advantages compared to fixed-point observations.

Corrigendum: Soluble PD-L1 changes in advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients treated with PD-1 inhibitors: an individual patient data meta-analysis.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1308381.].

Novel quantitative immunohistochemical analysis for evaluating PD-L1 expression with phosphor-integrated dots for predicting the efficacy of patients with cancer treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Introduction: Programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression in tumor tissues is measured as a predictor of the therapeutic efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) in many cancer types. PD-L1 expression is evaluated by immunohistochemical staining using 3,3´-diaminobenzidine (DAB) chronogenesis (IHC-DAB); however, quantitative and reproducibility issues remain. We focused on a highly sensitive quantitative immunohistochemical method using phosphor-integrated dots (PIDs), which are fluorescent nanoparticles, and evaluated PD-L1 expression between the PID method and conventional DAB method. Methods: In total, 155 patients with metastatic or recurrent cancer treated with ICIs were enrolled from four university hospitals. Tumor tissue specimens collected before treatment were subjected to immunohistochemical staining with both the PID and conventional DAB methods to evaluate PD-L1 protein expression. Results: PD-L1 expression assessed using the PID and DAB methods was positively correlated. We quantified PD-L1 expression using the PID method and calculated PD-L1 PID scores. The PID score was significantly higher in the responder group than in the non-responder group. Survival analysis demonstrated that PD-L1 expression evaluated using the IHC-DAB method was not associated with progression-free survival (PFS) or overall survival (OS). Yet, PFS and OS were strikingly prolonged in the high PD-L1 PID score group. Conclusion: Quantification of PD-L1 expression as a PID score was more effective in predicting the treatment efficacy and prognosis of patients with cancer treated with ICIs. The quantitative evaluation of PD-L1 expression using the PID method is a novel strategy for protein detection. It is highly significant that the PID method was able to identify a group of patients with a favorable prognosis who could not be identified by the conventional DAB method.

Monocyte subsets associated with the efficacy of anti­PD­1 antibody monotherapy.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are among the most notable advances in cancer immunotherapy; however, reliable biomarkers for the efficacy of ICIs are yet to be reported. Programmed death (PD)-ligand 1 (L1)-expressing CD14+ monocytes are associated with shorter overall survival (OS) time in patients with cancer treated with anti-PD-1 antibodies. The present study focused on the classification of monocytes into three subsets: Classical, intermediate and non-classical. A total of 44 patients with different types of cancer treated with anti-PD-1 monotherapy (pembrolizumab or nivolumab) were enrolled in the present study. The percentage of each monocyte subset was investigated, and the percentage of cells expressing PD-L1 or PD-1 within each of the three subsets was further analyzed. Higher pretreatment classical monocyte percentages were correlated with shorter OS (r=-0.32; P=0.032), whereas higher non-classical monocyte percentages were correlated with a favorable OS (r=0.39; P=0.0083). PD-L1-expressing classical monocytes accounted for a higher percentage of the total monocytes than non-classical monocytes with PD-L1 expression. In patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), a higher percentage of PD-L1-expressing classical monocytes was correlated with shorter OS (r=-0.60; P=0.012), which is similar to the observation for the whole patient cohort. Comparatively, higher percentages of non-classical monocytes expressing PD-L1 were significantly associated with better OS, especially in patients with NSCLC (r=0.60; P=0.010). Moreover, a higher percentage of non-classical monocytes contributed to prolonged progression-free survival in patients with NSCLC (r=0.50; P=0.042), with similar results for PD-L1-expressing non-classical monocytes. The results suggested that the percentage of monocyte subsets in patients with cancer before anti-PD-1 monotherapy may predict the treatment efficacy and prognosis. Furthermore, more classical monocytes and fewer non-classical monocytes, especially those expressing PD-L1, are involved in shortening OS time, which may indicate the poor efficiency of anti-PD-1 treatment approaches.

Turicibacter and Acidaminococcus predict immune-related adverse events and efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitor.

Introduction: Immune checkpoint inhibitors have had a major impact on cancer treatment. Gut microbiota plays a major role in the cancer microenvironment, affecting treatment response. The gut microbiota is highly individual, and varies with factors, such as age and race. Gut microbiota composition in Japanese cancer patients and the efficacy of immunotherapy remain unknown. Methods: We investigated the gut microbiota of 26 patients with solid tumors prior to immune checkpoint inhibitor monotherapy to identify bacteria involved in the efficacy of these drugs and immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Results: The genera Prevotella and Parabacteroides were relatively common in the group showing efficacy towards the anti-PD-1 antibody treatment (effective group). The proportions of Catenibacterium (P = 0.022) and Turicibacter (P = 0.049) were significantly higher in the effective group than in the ineffective group. In addition, the proportion of Desulfovibrion (P = 0.033) was significantly higher in the ineffective group. Next, they were divided into irAE and non-irAE groups. The proportions of Turicibacter (P = 0.001) and Acidaminococcus (P = 0.001) were significantly higher in the group with irAEs than in those without, while the proportions of Blautia (P = 0.013) and the unclassified Clostridiales (P = 0.027) were significantly higher in the group without irAEs than those with. Furthermore, within the Effective group, Acidaminococcus and Turicibacter (both P = 0.001) were more abundant in the subgroup with irAEs than in those without them. In contrast, Blautia (P = 0.021) and Bilophila (P= 0.033) were statistically significantly more common in those without irAEs. Discussion: Our Study suggests that the analysis of the gut microbiota may provide future predictive markers for the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy or the selection of candidates for fecal transplantation for cancer immunotherapy.

Identification of Membrane-expressed CAPRIN-1 as a Novel and Universal Cancer Target, and Generation of a Therapeutic Anti-CAPRIN-1 Antibody TRK-950.

Specific targets for cancer treatment are highly desirable, but still remain to be discovered. While previous reports suggested that CAPRIN-1 localizes in the cytoplasm, here we now show that part of this molecule is strongly expressed on the cell membrane surface in most solid cancers, but not normal tissues. Notably, the membrane expression of CAPRIN-1 extended to the subset of highly tumorigenic cancer stem cells and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-induced metastatic cancer cells. In addition, we revealed that cancer cells with particularly high CAPRIN-1 surface expression exhibited enhanced tumorigenicity. We generated a therapeutic humanized anti-CAPRIN-1 antibody (TRK-950), which strongly and specifically binds to various cancer cells and shows antitumor effects via engagement of immune cells. TRK-950 was further developed as a new cancer drug and a series of preclinical studies demonstrates its therapeutic potency in tumor-bearing mouse models and safety in a relevant cynomolgus monkey model. Together, our data demonstrate that CAPRIN-1 is a novel and universal target for cancer therapies. A phase I clinical study of TRK-950 has been completed (NCT02990481) and a phase Ib study (combination with approved drugs) is currently underway (NCT03872947) in the United States and France. In parallel, a phase I study in Japan is in progress as well (NCT05423262). Significance: Antibody-based cancer therapies have been demonstrated to be effective, but are only approved for a limited number of targets, because the majority of these markers is shared with healthy tissue, which may result in adverse effects. Here, we have successfully identified CAPRIN-1 as a novel truly cancer-specific target, universally expressed on membranes of various cancer cells including cancer stem cells. Clinical studies are underway for the anti-CAPRIN-1 therapeutic antibody TRK-950.

The Sympathetic Nervous System Contributes to the Establishment of Pre-Metastatic Pulmonary Microenvironments.

Emerging evidence suggests that neural activity contributes to tumor initiation and its acquisition of metastatic properties. More specifically, it has been reported that the sympathetic nervous system regulates tumor angiogenesis, tumor growth, and metastasis. The function of the sympathetic nervous system in primary tumors has been gradually elucidated. However, its functions in pre-metastatic environments and/or the preparation of metastatic environments far from the primary sites are still unknown. To investigate the role of the sympathetic nervous system in pre-metastatic environments, we performed chemical sympathectomy using 6-OHDA in mice and observed a decrease in lung metastasis by attenuating the recruitment of myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Furthermore, we note that neuro-immune cell interactions could be observed in tumor-bearing mouse lungs in conjunction with the decreased expression of Sema3A. These data indicate that the sympathetic nervous system contributes to the preparation of pre-metastatic microenvironments in the lungs, which are mediated by neuro-immune cell interactions.

Rapid progression of marginal zone B-cell lymphoma after COVID-19 vaccination (BNT162b2): A case report.

B-cell lymphomas are neoplastic diseases occasionally associated with chronic inflammation. mRNA vaccines for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) induce inflammatory responses, which often lead to fever and lymphadenopathies indistinguishable from lymphomas. Although both lymphadenopathies and lymphomas can be influential, the correlation between them is unclear. Herein, we present the first case of marginal zone B-cell lymphoma following mRNA COVID-19 vaccination. An 80-year-old Japanese woman presented with a right temporal mass that appeared the morning after she was administered her first mRNA COVID-19 vaccination (BNT162b2). The mass gradually decreased in size but persisted over 6 weeks after her first vaccination (3 weeks after her second vaccination). At her first visit to our hospital, ultrasound revealed the size of the mass to be 28.5 × 5.7 mm, and computed tomography revealed multiple lymphadenopathies in the right parotid, submandibular, jugular, and supraclavicular regions. Initially, we suspected head-and-neck benign lymphadenopathy as a side effect of vaccination. Nine weeks later, the number of swollen submandibular and parotid glands increased, and the lymph nodes further enlarged. Finally, the right temporal mass was diagnosed as marginal zone B-cell lymphoma based on immunohistochemical and flow cytometry findings of biopsy specimens. Our findings suggest that although 4-6 weeks of observation for lymph node inflammation after the second vaccination is recommended, malignancy should also be considered in the differential diagnosis of lymphadenopathy following vaccination.

[Successful treatment of secondary graft failure after allogeneic stem cell transplantation for aplastic anemia with eltrombopag].

Herein we report a case of successful treatment of secondary graft failure due to poor graft function (PGF) using eltrombopag. A 25-year-old woman with aplastic anemia (stage 3) underwent allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT) from her HLA-matched brother. Neutrophil engraftment was achieved on day 17, but she remained dependent on platelet transfusion. Chimerism analysis showed complete donor type, but she also became dependent on red blood cell transfusion later. Eltrombopag was administered on day 253 after BMT, after which she exhibited hematopoietic recovery, resulting in the withdrawal of transfusion dependency. Blood counts continued to be stable after eltrombopag was discontinued. The use of eltrombopag enabled outpatient treatment and induced hematopoietic recovery without significant side effects. Eltrombopag may be an effective and safe option for PGF after BMT.

Prognostic impact of chromosomal changes at relapse after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation for acute myeloid leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome.

Chromosome analysis is a powerful prognostic tool in myeloid malignancies. Recipients who experience relapse after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT) often show chromosomal changes between diagnosis and relapse. However, the clinical impact of chromosomal changes and the efficacy of post-relapse treatment according to chromosomal changes have not been fully investigated. We retrospectively analyzed 72 recipients who had experienced relapse after allo-HCT for acute myeloid leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome. We categorized them into two groups: with or without clonal chromosomal changes at relapse after allo-HCT. Post-relapse survival was shorter in the clonal chromosomal change group (median 117 days vs 275 days, P = 0.019). Moreover, acquisition of chromosome 7 abnormality or complex changes tended to be associated with inferior survival in a univariate analysis (median 92 days vs median 173 days, P = 0.043), and this adverse impact was confirmed in a multivariate analysis (hazard ratio 2.07, P = 0.024). The patterns of chromosomal changes from diagnosis to relapse after allo-HCT were heterogenous, and further investigations are required to clarify the effect of individual chromosomal changes.

The Prognostic Impact of MYC Gene-Related Abnormalities on Multiple Myeloma Outcome through Fluorescence in situ Hybridization Analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Chromosomal abnormalities (CAs) have been identified as important factors in determining the biological features and prognostic value of multiple myeloma (MM). MYC gene-related abnormalities (MYC GAs) are one of the CAs, but their unfavorable impact has not been fully investigated in daily clinical practice. METHODS: This study retrospectively analyzed the prognostic impact of MYC GAs on 81 patients through fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis in our institute. RESULTS: MYC GAs were associated with poor overall survival (hazard ratio [HR], 3.08; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.23-7.73; p = 0.017), progression-free survival (PFS) (HR, 2.96; 95% CI: 1.58-5.53; p < 0.001), and time to next treatment (TNT) (HR, 2.11; 95% CI: 1.13-3.93; p = 0.018) in the median follow-up of 34.7 months. Furthermore, MYC GAs with an additional chromosome 8 (MYC-Ch8(+)) were associated with shorter PFS (HR, 3.15; 95% CI: 1.38-7.2; p = 0.0064), whereas MYC GAs without an additional chromosome 8 (MYC-Ch8(-)) were associated with shorter PFS (HR, 3.62; 95% CI: 1.51-8.68; p = 0.004) and shorter TNT (HR, 3.72; 95% CI: 1.41-9.81; p = 0.0078). CONCLUSION: These findings could help identify high-risk patients with MM. Further prospective studies are needed to confirm the significance of MYC GAs for the MM prognostic effect.

HLA 1-3 antigen-mismatched related peripheral blood stem cells transplantation using low-dose antithymocyte globulin versus unrelated cord blood transplantation.

Little information is available regarding whether unrelated cord blood transplantation (CBT) or an HLA 1-3 antigen-mismatched related donor peripheral blood stem-cell transplantation (PBSCT) using low-dose anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG) is superior as an alternative transplantation for patients who lack an HLA-matched sibling or unrelated donor. Therefore, we evaluated 7861 patients with hematologic malignancies (aged 0 to 70 years) who received either a CBT without ATG (CBT-no ATG, n = 7034) or an HLA 1-3 antigen-mismatched related donor PBSCT using low-dose ATG (PBSCT-ATG, n = 827). CBT-no ATG was associated with significantly better overall survival (OS) than the use of a PBSCT-ATG (hazard ratio [HR], 0.77; p < .001), although PBSCT-ATG patients with an HLA 1 antigen-mismatch showed OS comparable to that in the CBT-no ATG group. Neutrophil and platelet engraftment was significantly delayed, whereas the incidences of nonrelapse mortality, and severe graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) were significantly lower in the CBT-no ATG group. The incidences of relapse and chronic GVHD were comparable between these donors. In conclusion, CBT-no ATG may be a better alternative than HLA-mismatched related donor PBSCT using low-dose ATG. Notably, HLA 2-3 antigen mismatch-related transplantation with low-dose ATG had significant adverse effects on transplantation outcomes.

A case of bronchial asthma as an immune-related adverse event of pembrolizumab treatment for bladder cancer: A case report.

RATIONALE: Bladder cancer is one of the most common cancers worldwide. The anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) antibody pembrolizumab, which is an immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI), has improved survival in bladder cancer. We report a case of bladder cancer that had a high antitumor effect with anti-programmed cell death PD-1 antibody pembrolizumab, an ICI, but asthma occurred an immune-related adverse event (irAE). PATIENT CONCERNS: A 70-year-old female patient was diagnosed as unresectable bladder cancer who was indicated for ICI treatment. DIAGNOSIS: After ICI administration as a treatment for bladder cancer, the patient had a grade 3 asthma attack. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) in CD4+ FOX3+ T cells was upregulated in the early phase before the development of asthma attacks. Moreover, T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain 3 (TIM-3) was upregulated in all memory T cells among CD4+ T cells. However, no change in the expression of TIM-3 was observed in any CD8+ T-cell subtype. In contrast, the proportion of CD161- T helper 17 cell (Th17) cells increased. INTERVENTIONS: The patient was treated with betamethasone, montelukast, salbutamol nebulization, and a combination of salmeterol (50 µg) and fluticasone (500 µg) (SFC). OUTCOMES: The patient's wheezing resolved, and her peak flow rate reached 100% of the predicted value; therefore, the patient continued treatment with SFC and montelukast and was discharged from the hospital. CONCLUSION: Increases in CTLA-4 and TIM-3 expression in CD4+ T cells (not CD8+), as well as an increase in Th17 cells, may reflect asthma-related inflammation activity. Immune-related adverse events during immune checkpoint inhibitor administration may be predictive markers of antitumor efficacy.

Future prospects for cancer immunotherapy - Strategies for ineffective cancers.

With the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2018, cancer immunotherapy is attracting more attention than ever before and is strongly expected to develop in the future. Immune checkpoint inhibitors were developed as drugs with a completely different mechanism from conventional chemotherapy for cancer patients, and their therapeutic effects were characterized not only by tumor shrinkage but also by long-term survival of cancer patients, which had a strong impact on cancer treatment. On the other hand, as a result of numerous clinical trials, it was found that the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors alone is only about 10-30%. Currently, more than 2,500 clinical trials of combined cancer immunotherapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors are being conducted with the hope of further improving therapeutic efficacy. Another new cancer immunotherapy, Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) gene transfer T-cell therapy, has been approved for B-cell hematopoietic tumors. In this article, we will outline the future prospects of cancer immunotherapy developed in this way, especially from the viewpoint of "strategies for ineffective cancer".

Outcomes of third allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in relapsed/refractory acute leukemia after a second transplantation.

Relapsed acute leukemia after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) is associated with poor prognosis. In a subset of patients, durable remissions can be achieved with a second allo-HSCT (allo-HSCT2). However, many patients experience relapse after allo-HSCT2 and they may be considered for a third allo-HSCT (allo-HSCT3). Nevertheless, the benefit of allo-HSCT3 remains unconfirmed. Thus, herein a retrospective analysis of 253 allo-HSCT3s in patients with relapsed/refractory acute leukemia was carried out. In total, 29 (11.5%) survived at a median follow-up of 794 days (range: 87-4 619). The 3-year leukemia-free survival and overall survival (OS) rates were 9.7% and 10.9%, respectively. Patients who maintained remission for ≥2 years after allo-HSCT2 had a significantly better 3-year OS (35.8%) than those who experienced early relapse (<1 year, 7.8%; 1-2 years, 14.0%; P = 0.004). Complete remission at allo-HSCT3, performance status score of 0-1 at allo-HSCT3, grade I acute graft-versus-host disease after allo-HSCT2, and relapse ≥2 years after allo-HSCT2 were associated with better survival in patients who received allo-HSCT3. The prognosis after allo-HSCT3 in patients with relapsed/refractory acute leukemia is generally unfavorable. However, given the lack of alternative treatment options, allo-HSCT3 may be considered in a group of patients.