Circulating Pro-Neurotensin in gestational diabetes mellitus.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Pro-Neurotensin (NT), a stable surrogate parameter of NT, has recently been introduced as a peptide predicting the development of obesity, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, and cardiovascular mortality. However, regulation of Pro-NT in gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) remains uninvestigated. METHODS AND RESULTS: Pro-NT was quantified in 74 women with GDM, 74 healthy, gestational age-matched, pregnant controls, as well as in a second cohort comprising of 74 healthy, non-pregnant control women, using a chemiluminometric sandwich immunoassay. Pro-NT was correlated to measures of obesity, hypertension, glucose and lipid metabolism, renal function, and inflammation. Mean ± standard deviation of circulating Pro-NT levels were not significantly different in women with GDM (100.2 ± 75.7 pmol/l) as compared to healthy, pregnant controls (103.2 ± 37.4 pmol/l) and healthy, non-pregnant female controls (105.9 ± 38.9 pmol/l) (p = 0.661). Homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and creatinine positively correlated with serum Pro-NT in multivariate regression analysis. In contrast, free fatty acids (FFA) were inversely correlated with circulating Pro-NT. Results sustained adjustment for pregnancy status. CONCLUSIONS: Circulating Pro-NT is not independently associated with GDM, but is with HOMA-IR, creatinine, and FFA even after adjustment for pregnancy status.

The brown-fat-secreted adipokine neuregulin 4 is decreased in gestational diabetes mellitus.

AIMS: Neuregulin 4 has recently been recognized as a novel adipokine secreted by brown adipose tissue (BAT), with beneficial effects on murine insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis. Yet, thus far, neither regulation of neuregulin 4 in gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) nor its longitudinal changes in the peripartum period have been elucidated. METHODS: Circulating neuregulin 4 levels were measured by ELISA in 74 women with GDM and 74 healthy, gestational-age-matched controls. Also, neuregulin 4 was quantified during pregnancy and compared with postpartum levels in a follow-up study of 25 women with previous GDM and 25 healthy control women. RESULTS: Women with GDM had lower median serum levels of the novel BAT-secreted adipokine neuregulin 4 (3.0µg/L) compared with healthy (non-GDM) pregnant controls (3.5µg/L; P=0.020), and the area under the glucose curve (AUCGlucose) was an independent and negative predictor of circulating neuregulin 4 (P=0.033). Also, median postpartum serum concentrations of neuregulin 4 (3.2µg/L) were not significantly different from prepartum levels (2.8µg/L; P=0.328). In addition, neuregulin 4 was positively and independently associated with irisin (P=0.009), but not other BAT-secreted adipokines. CONCLUSION/INTERPRETATION: Women with GDM have significantly lower circulating neuregulin 4 levels compared with healthy pregnant controls, and the AUCGlucose is negatively and independently associated with neuregulin 4 during pregnancy. Neuregulin 4 is positively correlated with irisin during pregnancy, as well as in a longitudinal fashion. Future studies are now needed to better elucidate the precise pathomechanisms of the regulation of BAT-secreted adipokines during pregnancy.

Serum Levels of Copeptin are Decreased in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus.

OBJECTIVE: Copeptin, the c-terminal part of pro-Arginine vasopressin, has recently been introduced as a novel risk factor to develop facets of the metabolic syndrome. However, regulation of copeptin in pregnancy-associated metabolic disease, i. e., gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), has not been fully understood, so far. PATIENTS AND MEASUREMENTS: For this study, 74 GDM patients and 74 healthy, pregnant, age-, body mass index-, and gestational age-matched controls were recruited. Serum levels of copeptin were quantified by an illuminometric assay. Furthermore, copeptin concentrations were correlated to biochemical and anthropometric markers of obesity, glucose and lipid metabolism, renal function, and inflammation. RESULTS: Median [interquartile range] serum copeptin levels were significantly lower in subjects with GDM (3.5 [2.0] pmol/l) as compared to controls (4.4 [3.2] pmol/l) (p<0.05). Furthermore, GDM remained an independent predictor of circulating copeptin in multivariate regression analysis (p<0.05). Moreover, copeptin was independently associated with gestational age at blood sampling (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Copeptin serum levels are significantly lower in GDM as compared to healthy pregnant controls. Further studies are needed to better clarify the pathophysiological role of copeptin in GDM.

Association of metabolic parameters and rs726344 in FNDC5 with serum irisin concentrations.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Irisin has been suggested as a novel myokine with beneficial effects in rodents. However, previous data in humans showed conflicting results regarding its association with metabolic phenotypes and regulation of secretion. Furthermore, although an association of rs726344 in FNDC5 (fibronectin type III domain containing 5) coding for irisin with insulin sensitivity was reported, the effects of genetic variation at this locus on irisin serum levels have not been investigated, so far. Therefore, we investigated circulating irisin and the associations with rs726344 in a cohort of >1000 subjects. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Irisin serum concentrations were measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Associations with metabolic parameters including renal function, glucose and lipid metabolism, inflammation, as well as adipokine profiles, were assessed in regression models. Dynamic changes of serum irisin were investigated during oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) in a subset of the cohort (n=136). rs726344 was genotyped in all subjects and analyzed for associations with serum irisin and traits of the metabolic syndrome. RESULTS: Irisin was negatively associated with fat mass, fasting glucose and dyslipidemia but not with other adipokines. Moreover, irisin decreased during an OGTT in a subcohort comprising subjects with normal glucose tolerance, impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance and type 2 diabetes mellitus. rs726344 was not associated with serum irisin levels or with other anthropometric and biochemical parameters. CONCLUSIONS: Circulating irisin levels are associated with a beneficial metabolic profile but not with other adipokines and not with rs726344 in our cohort. Our data suggest a potential favorable role of irisin in the regulation of metabolism.

Circulating angiopoietin-like protein 8 is independently associated with fasting plasma glucose and type 2 diabetes mellitus.

OBJECTIVE: Angiopoietin-like protein 8 (Angptl8) has recently been introduced as a novel adipokine/hepatokine that promotes pancreatic ß-cell proliferation and improves glucose tolerance in mouse models of insulin resistance. However, regulation of Angptl8 in human type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and renal dysfunction has not been determined. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Serum Angptl8 levels were quantified by ELISA in 62 patients with T2DM as compared with 58 nondiabetic subjects in vivo. Within both groups, about half of the patients were on chronic hemodialysis or had an estimated glomerular filtration rate above 50 mL/min/1.73 m(2). Furthermore, we investigated the effect of insulin and differentiation on Angptl8 mRNA expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes in vitro. RESULTS: Median [interquartile range] serum Angptl8 levels were higher in patients with T2DM (1.19 [0.37] µg/L) as compared with nondiabetic subjects (1.03 [0.47] µg/L) (P = .005). Furthermore, the adipokine/hepatokine was significantly higher in women (1.21 [0.47] µg/L) as compared with men (1.05 [0.44] µg/L]) (P = .013). In multivariate analysis, fasting glucose and T2DM but not renal function remained independent and positive predictors of circulating Angptl8 even after adjustment for markers of obesity, lipid status, and inflammation (P < .05). Furthermore, Angptl8 mRNA expression was induced by insulin and during adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: Circulating Angptl8 is positively and independently associated with T2DM and fasting glucose in vivo. Furthermore, Angptl8 mRNA expression is induced by insulin and during adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes in vitro.

Relationship between serum levels of angiopoietin-related growth factor and metabolic risk factors.

Angiopoietin-related growth factor (AGF, also known as angiopoietin-like protein 6) has been introduced as a novel hepatocyte-derived factor, which antagonizes obesity and insulin resistance in mice. However, human studies show conflicting results and are limited to a small cohort of patients. In the current study, we therefore sought to investigate AGF serum levels in a large metabolically well-characterized cohort. AGF serum concentrations were determined by commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in 697 patients of a cohort from Eastern Germany (Sorbs). Correlations of AGF serum levels with clinical and biochemical measures of glucose and lipid metabolism, as well as markers of renal function, were investigated. In nondiabetic subjects (n=627), AGF was positively correlated with markers of insulin resistance and negatively correlated with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in univariate analyses (p<0.05). After adjustment for age, gender, and body mass index, none of these factors remained independently associated with AGF, neither in nondiabetic subjects nor in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) (n=70). However, we confirmed existing data of significantly higher AGF concentrations in patients with T2DM as compared to controls in this large cohort. Circulating AGF is elevated in subjects with T2DM and related to the type of antidiabetic treatment, but is not independently associated with anthropometric parameters, indices of insulin sensitivity and secretion, or a number of other adipokines.

Circulating adipocyte fatty acid binding protein is increased in chronic and acute renal dysfunction.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The adipokine adipocyte fatty acid binding protein (AFABP) is positively associated with the development of the metabolic syndrome, diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease. We hypothesized that AFABP also increases with deteriorating renal function. METHODS AND RESULTS: Serum AFABP levels were quantified by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay in 532 patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) covering the whole spectrum of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) categories from G1 to G5 (study population 1). Furthermore, AFABP was measured in 32 patients before and within 30 h after elective unilateral nephrectomy, a model of acute kidney dysfunction (AKD) (study population 2). Moreover, circulating AFABP was investigated in rats undergoing bilateral nephrectomy (BNE) as compared to sham-operated animals. Median serum AFABP levels adjusted for age, gender, and body mass index significantly increased with increasing eGFR category (G1: 22.0 µg/l; G2: 34.6 µg/l; G3: 56.7 µg/l; G4: 95.2 µg/l; and G5: 173.9 µg/l). Furthermore, renal dysfunction remained positively associated with AFABP in multivariate analysis in this cohort. In patients undergoing unilateral nephrectomy, AFABP increased significantly after surgery (42.1 µg/l) as compared to pre-surgical values (29.3 µg/l). Furthermore, relative changes of post-to-pre-surgical AFABP levels were independently associated with relative changes of post-to-pre-surgical creatinine concentrations. After BNE in rats, AFABP increased significantly as compared to sham-operated animals. CONCLUSIONS: We show that AFABP is significantly elevated in CKD and AKD patients. Furthermore, measures of renal function are associated with circulating AFABP. Moreover, animal experiments indicate that AFABP levels strongly depend on renal function.

Serum levels of fractalkine are associated with markers of insulin resistance in gestational diabetes.

AIMS: Fractalkine has recently been introduced as an adipokine that improves glucose tolerance. Regulation of fractalkine in gestational diabetes, as well as its association with markers of obesity, glucose and lipid metabolism, inflammation and renal function, has not been elucidated. METHODS: Circulating fractalkine was quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in 74 women with gestational diabetes and 74 healthy, pregnant control subjects matched for age, BMI, and gestational age. RESULTS: Median (interquartile range) levels of fractalkine were not significantly different between the two groups [gestational diabetes: 2.24 (2.16) µg/l; control: 2.45 (1.38) µg/l] (P = 0.461). In multivariate linear regression analysis, fractalkine remained independently associated with homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (ß = -0.253, P = 0.002) and the proinflammatory adipokine progranulin (ß = 0.218, P = 0.007). CONCLUSIONS: Circulating fractalkine is not different between women with gestational diabetes and control subjects, but the adipokine is independently associated with markers of insulin resistance and proinflammatory progranulin in pregnancy.

Adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein is released from adipocytes by a non-conventional mechanism.

Adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein (AFABP) is an adipokine, which induces insulin resistance. However, AFABP does not possess any secretion-directed signals and the mechanisms for AFABP release have not been thoroughly assessed so far. In the current study, mechanisms for AFABP secretion were elucidated in 3T3-L1 adipocytes in vitro in the presence or absence of hormonal stimulation, calcium ionophore and secretion inhibitors by cell fractionation experiments, immunoblotting and ELISAs. We demonstrate that AFABP secretion is upregulated during adipocyte differentiation. AFABP secretion is not influenced by treatment with protein secretion inhibitors that block vesicular traffic at the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. AFABP is secreted partially by adipocyte-derived microvesicles (ADMs), an established mechanism for unconventional secretion from adipocytes. Both total and ADM-secreted AFABP are downregulated by insulin and upregulated by the calcium ionophore ionomycin. Furthermore, murine RAW 264.7 macrophages secrete AFABP and AFABP release from these cells is upregulated by lipopolysaccharide treatment. Taken together, these results suggest that AFABP is actively released by unconventional mechanisms and by ADMs from 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Furthermore, AFABP secretion from fat cells is regulated by insulin and intracellular calcium.

Different associations of adipokines in lean and healthy adults.

Regulation of adipokines in lean adults without metabolic disease and without eating disorders has not been comprehensively elucidated. We hypothesized that some of the established associations of these adipocyte-secreted proteins with anthropometric and biochemical measures of glucose homeostasis, lipid metabolism, renal function, as well as inflammation, differ in healthy and low weight adults as compared to overweight/obese patients. Eighty-one subjects with a body mass-index below 22.0 kg/m2 and without malnutrition or eating disorders, as well as fifty overweight/obese patients, were recruited for the study. Serum concentrations of seven adipokines (adiponectin, leptin, adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein [AFABP], chemerin, fibroblast growth factor [FGF]-21, resistin, retinol-binding protein [RBP]-4) were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Lean probands had significantly higher levels of adiponectin and resistin, as well as lower levels of leptin, AFABP, and RBP-4, as compared to overweight/obese subjects. Serum concentrations of adiponectin, leptin, AFABP, chemerin, and resistin were significantly higher in lean women as compared to men (p<0.05). In lean subjects, fasting insulin independently predicted leptin and resistin concentrations. Furthermore, C-reactive protein was independently associated with circulating AFABP and chemerin. Moreover, lean body mass was an independent predictor of leptin, fat mass predicted AFABP levels, whereas RBP-4 was independently correlated to age and triglycerides. In addition, high density lipoprotein cholesterol predicted AFABP. Our results support the notion that several of these adipokines are regulated in a different manner in lean adults as compared to overweight/obese subjects and patients with eating disorders.

Adipocyte fatty acid binding protein: a novel adipokine involved in the pathogenesis of metabolic and vascular disease?

Adipocyte fatty acid binding protein (AFABP, also known as aP2 and FABP4) has recently been introduced as a novel fat-derived circulating protein. AFABP serum concentrations are positively correlated with markers of the metabolic syndrome and vascular disease in various cross-sectional and interventional studies. Furthermore, a small set of prospective studies indicates that high AFABP serum levels at baseline predict the risk for metabolic and vascular morbidity and mortality. Studies in Afabp (also known as Fabp4) knockout mice and AFABP inhibitor-treated animals suggest that total AFABP promotes insulin resistance, hypertriacylglycerolaemia and atherosclerosis by ligand/ligand delivery, as well as ligand-independent mechanisms. In contrast, the pathophysiological significance of circulating AFABP and the mechanisms leading to its release remain to be established. The current review summarises recent findings on the regulation and potential role of AFABP in metabolic and vascular disease.

Metabolic and genetic predictors of circulating adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein.

BACKGROUND: Adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein (AFABP) was recently introduced as a novel adipokine playing an important role in glucose homeostasis. In this study, we investigated the relationship between serum AFABP levels and metabolic, as well as cardiovascular parameters, in the self-contained population of Sorbs. Furthermore, we conducted a genome-wide association study on serum AFABP concentrations in the Sorbs and we separately analyzed the effects of two common variants in the FABP4 gene on AFABP serum concentration. METHODS: Serum AFABP concentrations were quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and correlated with metabolic and cardiovascular parameters, as well as inflammatory markers and renal function, in 868 well-characterized non-diabetic Sorbs from Germany. RESULTS: Median AFABP serum concentrations were 1.5-fold higher in female subjects (23.03 µg l(-1)) as compared to male subjects (15.86 µg l(-1)). Waist-to-height ratio and glomerular filtration rate were independently associated with AFABP concentrations in multiple regression analysis in both female and male subjects. The genome-wide scan for association of single-nucleotide polymorphisms with serum AFABP levels in the Sorbs revealed 39 loci reaching P-values <10(-4). Two single-nucleotide polymorphisms, rs16909187 and rs10808846, representing common genetic variation in FABP4 did not show any effect on serum AFABP concentrations in our study cohort. CONCLUSION: AFABP serum concentrations are determined by parameters of fat distribution, renal function and gender.

Serum levels of the adipokine zinc-α2-glycoprotein are increased in preeclampsia.

BACKGROUND: Preeclampsia (PE) is associated with facets of the metabolic syndrome and an increased future metabolic and cardiovascular risk for mother and newborn. Recently, zinc-α2-glycoprotein (ZAG) has been proposed as a new adipokine involved in the pathogenesis of obesity. AIM: In the current study, we investigated ZAG serum levels in PE patients as compared to healthy gestational age-matched controls. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: We quantified serum concentrations of ZAG in patients with PE (no.=37) as compared to healthy gestational age-matched controls (no.=37) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Furthermore, association of this adipokine with renal function, glucose and lipid metabolism, as well as inflammation was studied. RESULTS: Median serum ZAG levels were 1.4-fold higher in PE patients (58.8 mg/l) as compared to controls (41.9 mg/l) (p<0.01). Furthermore, circulating ZAG was positively correlated to systolic and diastolic blood pressure, creatinine, triglycerides, and leptin in univariate analyses. In multiple regression analysis, creatinine remained independently associated with ZAG. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate that maternal ZAG serum concentrations are significantly increased in PE. Furthermore, renal function is an independent predictor of circulating ZAG.

Serum levels of the adipokine fasting-induced adipose factor/angiopoietin-like protein 4 depend on renal function.

Fasting-induced adipose factor/angiopoietin-like protein 4 (FIAF/Angptl4) was recently introduced as a novel adipokine influencing glucose and lipid homeostasis. In the current study, we quantified circulating FIAF/Angtl4 levels in patients on chronic hemodialysis (CD) as compared to controls with a glomerular filtration rate above 50 ml/min. FIAF/Angptl4 was determined by ELISA in control (n=60) and CD (n=60) patients and correlated to clinical and biochemical measures of renal function, glucose and lipid metabolism, as well as inflammation, in both groups. Median serum FIAF/Angptl4 levels were more than 5-fold higher in CD patients (48.3 µg/l) as compared to control subjects (8.4 µg/l) (p<0.001). Furthermore, serum creatinine independently predicted FIAF/Angptl4 concentrations in multiple regression analyses in control subjects (p<0.01). In CD patients, C-reactive protein was independently and positively associated with circulating FIAF/Angptl4 (p<0.01). Taken together, we show that serum FIAF/Angptl4 levels are significantly increased in end-stage renal disease and independently associated with markers of renal function in control subjects.

Adipose triglyceride lipase gene expression in human visceral obesity.

In comparison to subcutaneous (SC) fat, visceral adipose tissue is more sensitive to catecholamine-induced lipolysis and less sensitive to the antilipolytic effects of insulin. Variation in the expression of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) have been reported. We therefore hypothesized that expression of adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) is different in visceral and SC depot and investigated whether ATGL mRNA expression is related to obesity, fat distribution and insulin sensitivity. ATGL, LPL, and HSL mRNA expression was measured in 85 paired samples of omental and subcutaneous adipose tissue in normal glucose tolerant lean and obese individuals. In addition, we included a subgroup of obese (BMI >30 kg/m2) individuals with either impaired or preserved insulin sensitivity determined by euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamps. ATGL mRNA levels are significantly decreased in insulin resistant obese subjects. Independently of body fat mass, omental ATGL mRNA correlates with fasting insulin concentration, glucose uptake during the steady state of the clamp and HSL mRNA expression. In obese, but not in lean subjects, LPL and HSL mRNA expression was significantly higher in omental compared to SC fat. In both depots, HSL mRNA was significantly lower in obese individuals. Visceral HSL mRNA expression is closely related to adipocyte size and fasting plasma insulin concentrations, whereas visceral fat area significantly predicts visceral LPL mRNA expression. ATGL mRNA expression is not significantly different between omental and SC fat. HSL, but not ATGL mRNA expression is closely related to individual and regional differences in adipocyte size. Impaired insulin sensitivity was associated with decreased ATGL and HSL mRNA expression, independently of body fat mass and fat distribution.

Adipokines in diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.

Recent studies suggest that adipocyte-secreted factors called adipokines are involved in obesity-associated complications including hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, arterial hypertension, atherosclerosis, and heart failure. Among those, adiponectin is an antidiabetic and antiatherogenic protein, concentrations of which are decreased in obesity-associated metabolic and vascular disorders. In contrast, leptin, tumor necrosis factor a, interleukin-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 are upregulated in obesity and contribute to the development of diabetes and vascular disease. In this review, the relevance of adipokines in obesity, insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular diseases is discussed.

Adipokines and adipocyte targets in the future management of obesity and the metabolic syndrome.

The role of adipocytes has been recently better understood. Several adipocytokines have been identified, including leptin, a main regulator of appetite and energy expenditure, adiponectin and others, as novel insulin-sensitizers/insulin-mimetics, and some others inducing insulin resistance. Adipocytokines thus represent interesting novel drug targets in the future management of obesity.

Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 expression and secretion are induced by beta-adrenergic stimulation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 is an adipocytokine upregulated in obesity which might promote adipose tissue development. In the current study, the impact of the beta-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol on TIMP-1 gene expression and secretion was determined in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Interestingly, isoproterenol increased TIMP-1 secretion 2.7-fold. Furthermore, isoproterenol induced TIMP-1 mRNA in a time- and dose-dependent fashion with significant effects observed as early as 1 h after effector addition and at concentrations as low as 1 microM isoproterenol. Significant isoproterenol-induced upregulation of TIMP-1 mRNA could also be found in immortalized brown adipocytes. Inhibitor experiments confirmed that the positive effect of isoproterenol on TIMP-1 is mediated via beta-adrenergic receptors and protein kinase A. Moreover, increasing cAMP levels with forskolin or dibutyryl-cAMP was sufficient to stimulate TIMP-1 synthesis. Insulin induced basal TIMP-1 mRNA, but did not significantly influence forskolin-induced TIMP-1 expression. Taken together, we demonstrate that TIMP-1 expression and secretion are selectively upregulated in adipocytes by beta-adrenergic agonists via a classic Gs-protein-coupled pathway.

Glucose regulates expression of the nerve growth factor (NGF) receptors TrkA and p75NTR in rat islets and INS-1E beta-cells.

BACKGROUND: The function and survival of pancreatic beta-cells strongly depend on glucose concentration and on autocrine secretion of peptide growth factors. NGF and its specific receptors TrkA and p75NTR play a pivotal role in islet survival and glucose-dependent insulin secretion. We therefore investigated whether or not glucose concentration influences expression of TrkA and p75NTR in rat islets and in INS-1E beta-cells at the mRNA and protein level (INS-1E). METHODS: Gene expression of the NGF receptors TrkA and p75NTR but also of the metabolic gene liver-type pyruvate kinase (L-PK) and the neurotrophin receptors TrkB and TrkC was studied by semi-quantitative PCR and by real-time PCR in islets and INS-1E beta-cells. RESULTS: In rat islets, high glucose exposure (25 mmol/l) increased gene expression of TrkA, p75NTR and L-PK. Expression of TrkA, p75NTR and L-PK reflected insulin secretion at the respective glucose concentration. In rat INS-1E insulinoma cells, expression of L-PK and p75NTR was suppressed by low glucose as in the islets, while expression of TrkA was strongly increased by low glucose levels and thus was regulated differently than in islets. Expression of TrkB and TrkC was not regulated by glucose concentration at all. TrkA protein was regulated in the same fashion as its mRNA expression, while p75NTR protein was not significantly regulated within 24 h. CONCLUSION: Glucose interacts with gene expression of TrkA and p75NTR that are strongly involved in beta-cell growth and glucose-dependent insulin secretion. The fact that TrkA expression is regulated the opposite way in islets and in INS-1E beta-cells might reflect their specific grade of differentiation and tendency to proliferate.