Rapid re-establishment of top-down control at a no-take artificial reef.

Establishment of artificial reefs and no-take areas are management measures available for restoring deteriorated marine ecosystems, compensating for habitat loss and strengthening harvested populations. Following the establishment of no-take artificial reefs in western Sweden to compensate for hard bottoms lost to a shipping lane, we detected rapid positive effects on crustaceans and demersal fish compared to fished reference areas. The relative abundance and size structure of European lobster (Homarus gammarus) increased strongly in the no-take area indicating more than doubled and tripled egg production in 5 and 10 years, respectively. For benthic fish and crustacean communities, the abundances of gadoids and wrasses increased and the abundances of small decapod crustaceans decreased in the no-take area, likely indicating cascading effects of increased predation. The study demonstrates that relatively small no-take areas, enhanced by artificial reefs, can rapidly invigorate populations of lobster and fish that in turn may re-initiate local top-down control.

Assessing the potential for sea-based macroalgae cultivation and its application for nutrient removal in the Baltic Sea.

Marine eutrophication is a pervasive and growing threat to global sustainability. Macroalgal cultivation is a promising circular economy solution to achieve nutrient reduction and food security. However, the location of production hotspots is not well known. In this paper the production potential of macroalgae of high commercial value was predicted across the Baltic Sea region. In addition, the nutrient limitation within and adjacent to macroalgal farms was investigated to suggest optimal site-specific configuration of farms. The production potential of Saccharina latissima was largely driven by salinity and the highest production yields are expected in the westernmost Baltic Sea areas where salinity is >23. The direct and interactive effects of light availability, temperature, salinity and nutrient concentrations regulated the predicted changes in the production of Ulva intestinalis and Fucus vesiculosus. The western and southern Baltic Sea exhibited the highest farming potential for these species, with promising areas also in the eastern Baltic Sea. Macroalgal farming did not induce significant nutrient limitation. The expected spatial propagation of nutrient limitation caused by macroalgal farming was less than 100-250 m. Higher propagation distances were found in areas of low nutrient and low water exchange (e.g. offshore areas in the Baltic Proper) and smaller distances in areas of high nutrient and high water exchange (e.g. western Baltic Sea and Gulf of Riga). The generated maps provide the most sought-after input to support blue growth initiatives that foster the sustainable development of macroalgal cultivation and reduction of in situ nutrient loads in the Baltic Sea.

A Model for Disentangling Dependencies and Impacts among Human Activities and Marine Ecosystem Services.

Understanding and communicating the links among human activities and marine ecosystem services are fundamental for ecosystem-based management, which aims at attaining ecological, economic and social sustainability in the use of our seas. Relationships are typically complex and may differ between geographic areas. Here, an assessment model that combines available quantitative, semi-quantitative and qualitative information, rooted in the DAPSIR (Driver-Activity-Pressure-State-Impact-Response) framework and assessment requirements of the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive, is developed and applied. Focusing on Swedish marine waters, major human activities at sea are evaluated in relation to their dependencies and impacts on the status of marine ecosystem services. This case study is a consensus assessment based on evaluation of available literature and data. By relating degrees of dependencies and impacts to values of different economic sectors, discrepancies among sectors with respect to their impact versus their monetary value can be identified. In our case, commercial fishing depends on and influences a wide range of ecosystem services, while other sectors, such as shipping, depend little on marine ecosystem services. At the extreme end of the range, pressures from human activities in the past, such as historical nutrient emissions, still have prominent influence on ecosystem services today, entailing considerable losses. Marine tourism and commercial fishing show similar dependencies on ecosystem services, but tourism has a clearly lower impact on ecosystem services and a higher monetary value. The model may serve as a useful tool for communicating and guiding priorities in integrated environmental management and maritime spatial planning.

Cleaning up seas using blue growth initiatives: Mussel farming for eutrophication control in the Baltic Sea.

Eutrophication is a serious threat to aquatic ecosystems globally with pronounced negative effects in the Baltic and other semi-enclosed estuaries and regional seas, where algal growth associated with excess nutrients causes widespread oxygen free "dead zones" and other threats to sustainability. Decades of policy initiatives to reduce external (land-based and atmospheric) nutrient loads have so far failed to control Baltic Sea eutrophication, which is compounded by significant internal release of legacy phosphorus (P) and biological nitrogen (N) fixation. Farming and harvesting of the native mussel species (Mytilus edulis/trossulus) is a promising internal measure for eutrophication control in the brackish Baltic Sea. Mussels from the more saline outer Baltic had higher N and P content than those from either the inner or central Baltic. Despite their relatively low nutrient content, harvesting farmed mussels from the central Baltic can be a cost-effective complement to land-based measures needed to reach eutrophication status targets and is an important contributor to circularity. Cost effectiveness of nutrient removal is more dependent on farm type than mussel nutrient content, suggesting the need for additional development of farm technology. Furthermore, current regulations are not sufficiently conducive to implementation of internal measures, and may constitute a bottleneck for reaching eutrophication status targets in the Baltic Sea and elsewhere.

Geographic variation in fitness-related traits of the bladderwrack Fucus vesiculosus along the Baltic Sea-North Sea salinity gradient.

In the course of the ongoing global intensification and diversification of human pressures, the study of variation patterns of biological traits along environmental gradients can provide relevant information on the performance of species under shifting conditions. The pronounced salinity gradient, co-occurrence of multiple stressors, and accelerated rates of change make the Baltic Sea and its transition to North Sea a suitable region for this type of study. Focusing on the bladderwrack Fucus vesiculosus, one of the main foundation species on hard-bottoms of the Baltic Sea, we analyzed the phenotypic variation among populations occurring along 2,000 km of coasts subjected to salinities from 4 to >30 and a variety of other stressors. Morphological and biochemical traits, including palatability for grazers, were recorded at 20 stations along the Baltic Sea and four stations in the North Sea. We evaluated in a common modeling framework the relative contribution of multiple environmental drivers to the observed trait patterns. Salinity was the main and, in some cases, the only environmental driver of the geographic trait variation in F. vesiculosus. The decrease in salinity from North Sea to Baltic Sea stations was accompanied by a decline in thallus size, photosynthetic pigments, and energy storage compounds, and affected the interaction of the alga with herbivores and epibiota. For some traits, drivers that vary locally such as wave exposure, light availability or nutrient enrichment were also important. The strong genetic population structure in this macroalgae might play a role in the generation and maintenance of phenotypic patterns across geographic scales. In light of our results, the desalination process projected for the Baltic Sea could have detrimental impacts on F. vesiculosus in areas close to its tolerance limit, affecting ecosystem functions such as habitat formation, primary production, and food supply.

Relative impacts of fishing and eutrophication on coastal fish assessed by comparing a no-take area with an environmental gradient.

Understanding the relative impacts of pressures on coastal ecosystems is central for implementing relevant measures to reach environmental management objectives. Here, survey data on the species and size composition of coastal fish are evaluated in relation to fishing and eutrophication, by comparing a long-standing no-take area to an environmental gradient in the Baltic Sea. The no-take area represents an intermediate eutrophication level, but the species composition resembles that seen at low eutrophication in areas with fishing. The catch biomass of piscivores is 2-3 times higher in the no-take area than in the other areas, while the biomass of Cyprinids, generally benefitted by eutrophication, corresponds to that of areas with low eutrophication. The results support that fishing may generate eutrophication-like effects, and, conversely, that no-take areas may contribute to improving environmental status in impacted areas by enhancing piscivores, which in turn may contribute to further improvement in the food web.

Distribution of mesopredatory fish determined by habitat variables in a predator-depleted coastal system.

Shallow nearshore habitats are highly valued for supporting marine ecosystems, but are subject to intense human-induced pressures. Mesopredatory fish are key components in coastal food webs, and alterations in their abundance may have evident effects also on other parts of the ecosystem. The aim of this study was to clarify the relationship between the abundance of coastal mesopredatory fish, defined as mid-trophic level demersal and benthic species with a diet consisting predominantly of invertebrates, and ambient environmental variables in a fjord system influenced by both eutrophication and overfishing. A field survey was conducted over a coastal gradient comprising 300 data points sampled consistently for fish community and environmental data. Results from multivariate and univariate analyses supported each other, demonstrating that mesopredatory fish abundance at species and functional group level was positively related to the cover of structurally complex vegetation and negatively related to eutrophication, as measured by water transparency. Contrary to other studies showing an inverse relationship to piscivore abundance over time, the spatial distribution of mesopredatory fish was not locally regulated by the abundance of piscivorous fish, probably attributed to piscivores being at historically low levels due to previous overfishing. Mesopredatory fish abundance was highest in areas with high habitat quality and positively related to the abundance of piscivores, suggesting a predominance of bottom-up processes. We conclude that, in parallel with ongoing regulations of fishing pressure, measures to restore habitat function and food web productivity are important for the recovery of coastal fish communities in the area.

Non-native marine invertebrates are more tolerant towards environmental stress than taxonomically related native species: results from a globally replicated study.

To predict the risk associated with future introductions, ecologists seek to identify traits that determine the invasiveness of species. Among numerous designated characteristics, tolerance towards environmental stress is one of the most favored. However, there is little empirical support for the assumption that non-native species generally cope better with temporarily unfavorable conditions than native species. To test this concept, we ran five pairwise comparisons between native and non-native marine invertebrates at temperate, subtropical, and tropical sites. We included (natives named first) six bivalves: Brachidontes exustus and Perna viridis, P. perna and Isognomon bicolor, Saccostrea glomerata and Crassostrea gigas, two ascidians: Diplosoma listerianum and Didemnum vexillum as well as two crustaceans: Gammarus zaddachi and G. tigrinus. We simulated acute fluctuations in salinity, oxygen concentration, and temperature, while we measured respiration and survival rates. Under stressful conditions, non-native species consistently showed less pronounced deviations from their normal respiratory performance than their native counterparts. We suggest that this indicates that they have a wider tolerance range. Furthermore, they also revealed higher survival rates under stress. Thus, stress tolerance seems to be a property of successful invaders and could therefore be a useful criterion for screening profiles and risk assessment protocols.

Re-structuring of marine communities exposed to environmental change: a global study on the interactive effects of species and functional richness.

Species richness is the most commonly used but controversial biodiversity metric in studies on aspects of community stability such as structural composition or productivity. The apparent ambiguity of theoretical and experimental findings may in part be due to experimental shortcomings and/or heterogeneity of scales and methods in earlier studies. This has led to an urgent call for improved and more realistic experiments. In a series of experiments replicated at a global scale we translocated several hundred marine hard bottom communities to new environments simulating a rapid but moderate environmental change. Subsequently, we measured their rate of compositional change (re-structuring) which in the great majority of cases represented a compositional convergence towards local communities. Re-structuring is driven by mortality of community components (original species) and establishment of new species in the changed environmental context. The rate of this re-structuring was then related to various system properties. We show that availability of free substratum relates negatively while taxon richness relates positively to structural persistence (i.e., no or slow re-structuring). Thus, when faced with environmental change, taxon-rich communities retain their original composition longer than taxon-poor communities. The effect of taxon richness, however, interacts with another aspect of diversity, functional richness. Indeed, taxon richness relates positively to persistence in functionally depauperate communities, but not in functionally diverse communities. The interaction between taxonomic and functional diversity with regard to the behaviour of communities exposed to environmental stress may help understand some of the seemingly contrasting findings of past research.