Reality check: the cost-effectiveness of removing body checking from youth ice hockey.

BACKGROUND/AIM: The risk of injury among Pee Wee (ages 11-12 years) ice hockey players in leagues that allow body checking is threefold greater than in leagues that do not allow body checking. We estimated the cost-effectiveness of a no body checking policy versus a policy that allows body checking in Pee Wee ice hockey. METHODS: Cost-effectiveness analysis alongside a prospective cohort study during the 2007-2008 season, including players in Quebec (n=1046), where policy did not allow body checking, and in Alberta (n=1108), where body checking was allowed. Injury incidence rates (injuries/1000 player-hours) and incidence proportions (injuries/100 players), adjusted for cluster using Poisson regression, allowed for standardised comparisons and meaningful translation to community stakeholders. Based on Alberta fee schedules, direct healthcare costs (physician visits, imaging, procedures) were adjusted for cluster using bootstrapping. We examined uncertainty in our estimates using cost-effectiveness planes. RESULTS: Associated with significantly higher injury rates, healthcare costs where policy allowed body checking were over 2.5 times higher than where policy disallowed body checking ($C473/1000 player-hours (95% CI $C358 to $C603) vs $C184/1000 player-hours (95% CI $C120 to $C257)). The difference in costs between provinces was $C289/1000 player-hours (95% CI $C153 to $C432). Projecting results onto Alberta Pee Wee players registered in the 2011-2012 season, an estimated 1273 injuries and $C213 280 in healthcare costs would be avoided during just one season with the policy change. CONCLUSION: Our study suggests that a policy disallowing body checking in Pee Wee ice hockey is cost-saving (associated with fewer injuries and lower costs) compared to a policy allowing body checking. As we did not account for long-term outcomes, our results underestimate the economic impact of these injuries.

Cost-utility of metal-on-metal hip resurfacing compared to conventional total hip replacement in young active patients with osteoarthritis.

BACKGROUND: Metal-on-metal hip resurfacing arthroplasty (MoM HRA) has emerged as an alternative to total hip arthroplasty (THA) for younger active patients with osteoarthritis (OA). Birmingham hip resurfacing is the most common MoM HRA in Alberta, and is therefore compared with conventional THA. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to estimate the expected cost-utility of MoM HRA versus THA, in younger patients with OA, using a decision analytic model with a 15-year time horizon. METHODS: A probabilistic Markov decision analytic model was constructed to estimate the expected cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) of MoM HRA versus THA from a health care payer perspective. The base case considered patients with OA aged 50 years; men comprised 65.9% of the cohort. Sensitivity analyses evaluated cohort age, utility values, failure probabilities, and treatment costs. Data were derived from the Hip Improvement Project and the Hip and Knee Replacement Pilot databases in Alberta, the 2010 National Joint Replacement Registry of the Australian Orthopaedic Association, and the literature. RESULTS: In the base case, THA was dominated by MoM HRA (incremental mean costs of -$583 and incremental mean QALYs of 0.079). In subgroup analyses, THA remained dominated when cohort age was 40 years instead of 50 years or when only men were assessed. THA dominated when the cohort age was 60 years or when only women were assessed. Results were sensitive to utilities, surgery costs, and MoM HRA revision and conversion probabilities. At a willingness-to-pay of Can $50,000/QALY, there was a 58% probability that MoM HRA is cost-effective. CONCLUSIONS: The results show that, on average, MoM HRA was preferred to THA for younger and male patients, but THA is still a reasonable option if the patient or clinician prefers given the small absolute differences between the options and the confidence ellipses around the cost-effectiveness estimates.

Do economic evaluations of targeted therapy provide support for decision makers?

PURPOSE: Decision makers must make decisions without complete information. That uncertainty can be decreased when economic evaluations use local data and can be quantified by considering the variability of all model inputs concurrently per international evaluation guidelines. It is unclear how these recommendations have been implemented in evaluations of targeted cancer therapy. By using economic evaluations of adjuvant trastuzumab, we have assessed the extent to which decision support recommendations were adopted. STUDY DESIGN: Systematic review. METHODS: Published economic evaluations of adjuvant trastuzumab treatment in early-stage breast cancer were examined as an established example of targeted therapy. Canadian, United Kingdom, and US economic evaluation guidelines were reviewed to establish extraction criteria. Extraction characterized the use of effectiveness evidence and local data sources for model parameters, sensitivity analysis methods (scenario, univariate, multivariate, and probabilistic) and uncertainty representation (ie, cost-effectiveness plane, scatterplot, confidence ellipses, tornado diagrams, cost-effectiveness acceptability curve). RESULTS: Fifteen economic evaluations of adjuvant trastuzumab were identified in the literature. Local data were used to estimate costs (15 of 15) and utilities rarely (two of 15) but not trastuzumab efficacy. Univariate sensitivity analysis was most common (12 of 15), whereas probabilistic analysis was less frequent (10 of 15). Two thirds of all studies provided visual representation of results and decision uncertainty. CONCLUSION: Authors of adjuvant trastuzumab economic evaluations rarely use local data beyond costs. Quantification of uncertainty and its representation also fell short of guideline recommendations. This review demonstrates that economic evaluations of adjuvant trastuzumab, as an example of targeted cancer therapy, can be improved for decision-making support.

Economic evaluation of targeted cancer interventions: critical review and recommendations.

Scientific advances have improved our ability to target cancer interventions to individuals who will benefit most and spare the risks and costs to those who will derive little benefit or even be harmed. Several approaches are currently used for targeting interventions for cancer risk reduction, screening, and treatment, including risk prediction algorithms for identifying high-risk subgroups and diagnostic tests for tumor markers and germline genetic mutations. Economic evaluation can inform decisions about the use of targeted interventions, which may be more costly than traditional strategies. However, assessing the impact of a targeted intervention on costs and health outcomes requires explicit consideration of the method of targeting. In this study, we describe the importance of this principle by reviewing published cost-effectiveness analyses of targeted interventions in breast cancer. Few studies we identified explicitly evaluated the relationships among the method of targeting, the accuracy of the targeting test, and outcomes of the targeted intervention. Those that did found that characteristics of targeting tests had a substantial impact on outcomes. We posit that the method of targeting and the outcomes of a targeted intervention are inextricably linked and recommend that cost-effectiveness analyses of targeted interventions explicitly consider costs and outcomes of the method of targeting.

Do economic evaluations of targeted therapy provide support for decision makers?

OBJECTIVE: Decision makers must make decisions without complete information. That uncertainty can be decreased when economic evaluations use local data and can be quantified by considering the variability of all model inputs concurrently per international evaluation guidelines. It is unclear how these recommendations have been implemented in evaluations of targeted cancer therapy. By using economic evaluations of adjuvant trastuzumab, we have assessed the extent to which decision support recommendations were adopted. STUDY DESIGN: Systematic review. METHODS: Published economic evaluations of adjuvant trastuzumab treatment in early-stage breast cancer were examined as an established example of targeted therapy. Canadian, United Kingdom, and US economic evaluation guidelines were reviewed to establish extraction criteria. Extraction characterized the use of effectiveness evidence and local data sources for model parameters, sensitivity analysis methods (scenario, univariate, multivariate, and probabilistic), and uncertainty representation (ie, cost-effectiveness plane, scatterplot, confidence ellipses, tornado diagrams, cost-effectiveness acceptability curve). RESULTS: Fifteen economic evaluations of adjuvant trastuzumab were identified in the literature. Local data were used to estimate costs (15 of 15) and utilities rarely (2 of 15) but not trastuzumab efficacy. Univariate sensitivity analysis was most common (12 of 15), whereas probabilistic analysis was less frequent (10 of 15). Two-thirds of all studies provided visual representation of results and decision uncertainty. CONCLUSION: Authors of adjuvant trastuzumab economic evaluations rarely use local data beyond costs. Quantification of uncertainty and its representation also fell short of guideline recommendations. This review demonstrates that economic evaluations of adjuvant trastuzumab, as an example of targeted cancer therapy, can be improved for decision-making support.

How do physician assessments of patient preferences for colorectal cancer screening tests differ from actual preferences? A comparison in Canada and the United States using a stated-choice survey.

BACKGROUND: Patient preferences can affect colorectal cancer (CRC) screening test use. We compared utility-based preferences for alternative CRC screening tests from a stated-preference discrete-choice survey of the general population and physicians in Canada and the United States. METHODS: General population respondents (Canada, n = 501; US, n = 1087) participated in a survey with 12 choice scenarios and 9 CRC screening test attributes. Physicians (n = 100, both Canada and US) reported expected patient preferences. We estimated relative importance of attributes using bivariate probit regression analysis and calculated willingness-to-pay for various CRC screening tests. RESULTS: In 28 and 31% of scenarios, Canadian and US respondents, respectively, chose no screening over a hypothetical test. Canadian (45%) and US (46%) physicians expected patients to choose no screening more often. For all groups the most important attribute was sensitivity, but physicians' perception of patients' preferences are significantly different from actual preferences. Other key attributes are those related to test performance or the testing process. Fecal DNA, colonoscopy, and virtual colonoscopy were the most preferred tests by all groups, but respondents were willing-to-pay more than physicians predicted. CONCLUSION: Physicians' perception of patients' preferences are quite different from those of the general population. However, among general population and physicians, Canadian and US preferences were similar.

Looking back at 10 years of trastuzumab therapy: what is the role of HER2 testing? A systematic review of health economic analyses.

Trastuzumab is a targeted therapy for human EGF receptor-2 (HER2)-positive breast cancer. The effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of trastuzumab hinges not only on its clinical efficacy in responding patients, but on the ability to accurately identify appropriate therapeutic candidates. We sought to systematically review the cost-effectiveness of trastuzumab with a focus on the impact of the test(s) used for HER2 diagnosis. Our review included 17 economic evaluations or health technology assessments of trastuzumab therapy or HER2 testing. Trastuzumab was considered cost-effective in all early-stage disease studies, while one author concluded that trastuzumab was not cost-effective for metastatic disease. Only two papers considered the joint effects of test accuracy and sequencing with trastuzumab therapy. These demonstrated that trastuzumab cost-effectiveness is sensitive to HER2-test properties.

Measuring patient preferences for colorectal cancer screening using a choice-format survey.

OBJECTIVE: Colorectal cancer (CRC) screening uptake remains poor. Until we understand patient motivation and preferences for undertaking screening, it is unlikely the uptake will be optimal. Our objective is to examine patient preferences for CRC screening modalities and uptake rates using utility-based methods. METHODS: The preference survey was mailed to a random sample of Canadian subjects aged 40 to 60 years from a primary care network. A fractional factorial experimental design maximized D-efficiency and included four blocks with 12 choice tasks in a conditional two-step design, two-alternative discrete choice format with five screening attributes (process, pain, preparation, sensitivity, and specificity). Bivariate probit regression analysis was used to estimate patient preferences for attributes, choice probabilities for alternative modalities and expected rates of uptake. RESULTS: Five hundred forty-seven of 1047 surveys were returned. Almost 30% of respondents preferred no screening. The most preferred test attribute levels were noninvasive process (e.g., CT), no preparation, no pain, 100% specificity, and 90% sensitivity. Accuracy-related attributes were more important than test process-related attributes. Virtual colonoscopy was the most preferred, followed by colonoscopy, barium enema, sigmoidoscopy, and fecal DNA testing, based on simulated choice probability estimates. Fecal occult blood testing (FOBT) was least preferred. Adjusted screening uptake rate estimates showed the greatest impact (42% increase) would be achieved if all CRC screening modalities were available rather than FOBT alone. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings emphasize the important role of patient preferences for no screening and in selecting alternative CRC screening modalities. CRC screening implementation in Canada should consider patient preferences to optimize uptake.

The effects of coxib formulary restrictions on analgesic use and cost: regional evidence from Canada.

BACKGROUND: Public insurance plans for pharmaceuticals in Canada differ substantially across provinces in the conditions under which pharmaceuticals are reimbursed. Coxibs provide a good example. Québec had no restrictions on reimbursement for these drugs. Ontario required physicians to submit the clinical indications for their use on the prescription. British Columbia required physicians to seek and receive prior authorisation from the drug plan. OBJECTIVE: This study compares the effects of different reimbursement policies on coxib, non-selective non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (nsNSAIDs), and gastro-protective agent (GPA) use and cost. STUDY DESIGN: Analysis of retrospective time series analysis of all NSAID and GPA administrative claims data from April 1997 through December 2002. SETTING: Administrative claims data from April 1997 through December 2002 for each of the publicly funded drug plans in Québec, Ontario, and British Columbia. In addition, we obtained data from BC PharmaNet, which records all dispensed prescriptions in British Columbia. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Senior beneficiaries (>or= 65 years). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: We compared the projected total NSAID utilisation in the absence of coxib reimbursement restriction with actual utilisation by province and drug category. Projected utilisation was based on ARIMA modelling and reported as the number of defined daily doses (DDDs) per 100 senior (>or=65 years) beneficiaries/month. RESULTS: In Ontario, under its "limited use" policy, uptake and steady-state use of coxibs was similar to that in Québec, where there were no restrictions. In British Columbia, publicly funded use of coxibs was 6% of that in Ontario and Québec. Despite a shift to private reimbursement, total coxib use in BC was only 50% of use in Ontario and Québec. The use of all NSAIDS (nsNSAIDS plus coxibs) increased for all provincial drug plans except for BC. The increase and overall rate of total NSAID use was greatest in Ontario. Neither Ontario's nor BC's policies had an impact on use of nsNSAIDs or GPAs. CONCLUSION: Only BC's policy effectively limited publicly funded coxib use. However, there was substantial cost-shifting to out-of-pocket and third party insurance plans in BC.