Effects of empagliflozin on reproductive system in men without diabetes.

Sodium-glucose cotransporter (SGLT) 2 inhibition is a well-known target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes, renal disease and chronic heart failure. The protein SGLT2 is encoded by SLC5A2 (Solute Carrier Family 5 Member 2), which is highly expressed in renal cortex, but also in the testes where glucose uptake may be essential for spermatogenesis and androgen synthesis. We postulated that in healthy males, SGLT2 inhibitor therapy may affect gonadal function. We examined the impact on gonadal and steroid hormones in a post-hoc analysis of a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled research including 26 healthy males who were given either placebo or empagliflozin 10 mg once daily for four weeks. After one month of empagliflozin, there were no discernible changes in androgen, pituitary gonadotropin hormones, or inhibin B. Regardless of BMI category, the administration of empagliflozin, a highly selective SGLT2 inhibitor, did not alter serum androgen levels in men without diabetes. While SGLT2 is present in the testes, its inhibition does not seem to affect testosterone production in Leydig cells nor inhibin B secretion by the Sertoli cells.

LC-MS/MS measurement of endogenous steroid hormones and phase II metabolites in blood volumetric absorptive microsampling (VAMS) for doping control purposes.

BACKGROUND: Volumetric Absorptive Microsampling (VAMS) is emerging as a valuable technique in the collection of dried biological specimens, offering a potential alternative to traditional sampling methods. The objective of this study was to assess the suitability of 30 µL VAMS for the measurement of endogenous steroid hormones. METHODS: A novel LC-MS/MS method was developed for the quantification of 18 analytes in VAMS samples, including main endogenous free steroids and phase II metabolites of androgens. The method underwent validation in accordance with ISO/IEC 17025:2017 and World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) requirements. Subsequently, it was applied to authentic VAMS samples obtained from 20 healthy volunteers to assess the stability of target analytes under varying storage conditions. RESULTS: The validation protocol assessed method's selectivity, matrix effect, extraction recovery, quantitative performance, carry-over and robustness. The analysis of authentic samples demonstrated the satisfactory stability of monitored steroids in VAMS stored at room temperature, 4 °C, -20 °C and -80 °C for up to 100 days and subjected to up to 3 freezing-thawing cycles. CONCLUSIONS: The validated LC-MS/MS method demonstrated its suitability for the measurement of steroids in dried blood VAMS. The observed stability of steroidal compounds suggests promising prospects for future applications of VAMS, both in anti-doping contexts and clinical research.

Use of RNA biomarkers in the antidoping field.

There is growing evidence that various RNA molecules can serve as biomarkers for clinical diagnoses. Over the last decade, the high specificities and sensitivities of RNA biomarkers have led to proposals that they could be used to detect prohibited substances and practices in sports. mRNAs and circulating miRNAs have the potential to improve the detection of doping and expand the performance of the Athlete Biological Passport. This review provides a summary of the use of RNA biomarkers to detect human and equine doping practices, including a discussion of the use of dried blood spots as a stable matrix that supports and improves the general process of RNA biomarker detection. The advantages of RNA biomarkers over protein biomarkers are also discussed.

[Box: see text].

mRNA biomarkers sensitive and specific to micro-dose erythropoietin treatment at sea level and altitude.

Recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) is prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency. rhEPO abuse can be indirectly detected via the athlete biological passport (ABP). However, altitude exposure challenges interpretation of the ABP. This study investigated whether 5'-aminolevulinate synthase 2 (ALAS2) and carbonic anhydrase 1 (CA1) in capillary dried blood spots (DBSs) are sensitive and specific markers of rhEPO treatment at altitude. ALAS2 and CA1 expression was monitored in DBS collected weekly before, during, and after a 3-week period at sea level or altitude. Participants were randomly assigned to receive 20 IU kg bw-1 epoetin alpha (rhEPO) or placebo injections every second day for 3 weeks while staying at sea level (rhEPO, n = 25; placebo, n = 9) or altitude (rhEPO, n = 12; placebo, n = 27). ALAS2 and CA1 expression increased up to 300% and 200%, respectively, upon rhEPO treatment at sea-level and altitude (P-values <0.05). When a blinded investigator interpreted the results, ALAS2 and CA1 expression had a sensitivity of 92%. Altitude did not confound the interpretation. Altitude affected ALAS2 and CA1 expression less than actual ABP markers when compared between sea level and altitude results. An individual athlete passport-like approach simulation confirmed the biomarker potential of ALAS2 and CA1. ALAS2 and CA1 were sensitive and specific biomarkers of micro-dose rhEPO treatment at sea level and altitude. Altitude seemed less a confounding factor for these biomarkers, especially when they are combined. Thus, micro-dose rhEPO injections can be detected in a longitudinal blinded setting using mRNA biomarkers in DBS.

Comparison of analytical approaches for the detection of oral testosterone undecanoate administration in men.

For antidoping laboratories, the determination of an illicit testosterone (T) administration in urine samples remains a difficult process as it requires the determination of the exogenous origin by carbon isotope ratios (CIRs) of testosterone and its metabolites. As a complement to the urinary analysis, targeting testosterone esters (e.g. testosterone undecanoate [TU]) in serum samples by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) could represent a simpler approach compared with isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS). These two approaches both lead to the direct detection of the administration of exogenous T but with a difference in effort and complexity of the analysis. To compare the detection window obtained with the two strategies, serum and the corresponding urine samples collected from an administration study with oral TU were analysed. Results showed that, at all timepoints where the intact TU was detected in serum, the CIRs of urinary steroids were also not in agreement with an endogenous origin. IRMS analysis required more effort but resulted in slightly longer detection windows than the ester analysis. Finally, this comparison study showed that, in the presence of a suspicious urinary steroid profile, the LC-MS/MS steroid esters analysis in the corresponding serum samples can be very helpful. If steroid esters are not detected, the IRMS analysis can then be conducted on the urine sample afterwards. Overall, the combination of matrices might facilitate the detection of prohibited T administration in sports, especially for athletes with naturally low T/E ratios.

Characterization of DNA concentration in urine and dried blood samples to detect the c.577 deletion within the EPO gene.

The EPO gene variant, c.577del (VAR-EPO), was discovered in the Chinese population in 2021. The mutated protein is naturally present in urine from individuals heterozygous for the variant. Electrophoresis methods currently applied in anti-doping laboratories produce a pattern in samples from individuals carrying VAR-EPO that cannot be unambiguously distinguished from individuals who received recombinant EPO doses. Consequently, the analysis of blood samples is obligatory to facilitate interpretation of suspicious findings from urine samples. However, this complicates the process and delays the reporting. Objective of this study was to develop EPO c.577del detection in urine and dried blood samples (DBS) in order to facilitate and accelerate EPO results management. Moreover, estimation of the success rate of sequencing regarding concentration of DNA in urine and DBS was evaluated. Conclusive results regarding Sanger sequencing were obtained for all samples with DNA concentrations above 0.024 ng/µL DNA in 80% of urines samples from volunteers. The potential success of DNA sequencing rate in athletes' urines was investigated. A total of 191 urine samples were considered. DNA concentration exceeding 0.024 ng/µL was detected in 85% of the samples. Interestingly, in-competition samples had a significantly higher DNA concentration than out-of-competition male urine samples (0.330 vs. 0.084 ng/µL). Moreover, conclusive EPO sequences were obtained for 100% of DBS (cellulose and polymer matrices). In conclusion, method for detection of EPO gene variant was developed in urine and DBS. Characterization of DNA concentration was performed in order to evaluate the probability of success of sequencing EPO gene in anti-doping field.

Annual banned-substance review 16th edition-Analytical approaches in human sports drug testing 2022/2023.

In this 16th edition of the annual banned-substance review on analytical approaches in human sports drug testing, literature on recent developments in this particular section of global anti-doping efforts that was published between October 2022 and September 2023 is summarized and discussed. Most recent additions to the continuously growing portfolio of doping control analytical approaches and investigations into analytical challenges in the context of adverse analytical findings are presented, taking into account existing as well as emerging challenges in anti-doping, with specific focus on substances and methods of doping recognized in the World Anti-Doping Agency's 2023 Prohibited List. As in previous years, focus is put particularly on new or enhanced analytical options in human doping controls, appreciating the exigence and core mission of anti-doping and, equally, the conflict arising from the opposingly trending extent of the athlete's exposome and the sensitivity of instruments nowadays commonly available in anti-doping laboratories.

Straightforward quantification of endogenous steroids with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry: Comparing calibration approaches.

Different calibration strategies are used in liquid chromatography hyphenated to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) bioanalysis. Currently, the surrogate matrix and surrogate analyte represent the most widely used approaches to compensate for the lack of analyte-free matrices in endogenous compounds quantification. In this context, there is a growing interest in rationalizing and simplifying quantitative analysis using a one-point concentration level of stable isotope-labeled (SIL) standards as surrogate calibrants. Accordingly, an internal calibration (IC) can be applied when the instrument response is translated into analyte concentration via the analyte-to-SIL ratio performed directly in the study sample. Since SILs are generally used as internal standards to normalize variability between authentic study sample matrix and surrogate matrix used for the calibration, IC can be calculated even if the calibration protocol was achieved for an external calibration (EC). In this study, a complete dataset of a published and fully validated method to quantify an extended steroid profile in serum was recomputed by adapting the role of SIL internal standards as surrogate calibrants. Using the validation samples, the quantitative performances for IC were comparable with the original method, showing acceptable trueness (79%-115%) and precision (0.8%-11.8%) for the 21 detected steroids. The IC methodology was then applied to human serum samples (n = 51) from healthy women and women diagnosed with mild hyperandrogenism, showing high agreement (R2 > 0.98) with the concentrations obtained using the conventional quantification based on EC. For IC, Passing-Bablok regression showed proportional biases between -15.0% and 11.3% for all quantified steroids, with an average difference of -5.8% compared to EC. These results highlight the reliability and the advantages of implementing IC in clinical laboratories routine to simplify quantification in LC-MS bioanalysis, especially when a large panel of analytes is monitored.

A new multimodal paradigm for biomarkers longitudinal monitoring: a clinical application to women steroid profiles in urine and blood.

BACKGROUND: Most current state-of-the-art strategies to generate individual adaptive reference ranges are designed to monitor one clinical parameter at a time. An innovative methodology is proposed for the simultaneous longitudinal monitoring of multiple biomarkers. The estimation of individual thresholds is performed by applying a Bayesian modeling strategy to a multivariate score integrating several biomarkers (compound concentration and/or ratio). This multimodal monitoring was applied to data from a clinical study involving 14 female volunteers with normal menstrual cycles receiving testosterone via transdermal route, as to test its ability to detect testosterone administration. The study samples consisted of urine and blood collected during 4 weeks of a control phase and 4 weeks with a daily testosterone gel application. RESULTS: Integrating multiple biomarkers improved the detection of testosterone gel administration with substantially higher sensitivity compared with the distinct follow-up of each biomarker, when applied to selected urine and serum steroid biomarkers, as well as the combination of both. Among the 175 known positive samples, 38% were identified by the multimodal approach using urine biomarkers, 79% using serum biomarkers and 83% by combining biomarkers from both biological matrices, whereas 10%, 67% and 64% were respectively detected using standard unimodal monitoring. SIGNIFICANCE AND NOVELTY: The detection of abnormal patterns can be improved using multimodal approaches. The combination of urine and serum biomarkers reduced the overall number of false-negatives, thus evidencing promising complementarity between urine and blood sampling for doping control, as highlighted in the case of the use of transdermal testosterone preparations. The generation in a multimodal setting of adaptive and personalized reference ranges opens up new opportunities in clinical and anti-doping profiling. The integration of multiple parameters in a longitudinal monitoring is expected to provide a more complete evaluation of individual profiles generating actionable intelligence to further guide sample collection, analysis protocols and decision-making in clinics and anti-doping.

Longitudinal Profiling of Endogenous Steroids in Blood Using the Athlete Biological Passport Approach.

CONTEXT: Detection of endogenous anabolic androgenic steroids (EAAS), like testosterone (T), as doping agents has been improved with the launch of the Steroidal Module of the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) in urine samples. OBJECTIVE: To target doping practices with EAAS, particularly in individuals with low level of biomarkers excreted in urine, by including new target compounds measured in blood. DESIGN: T and T/androstenedione (T/A4) distributions were obtained from 4 years of anti-doping data and applied as priors to analyze individual profiles from 2 T administration studies in female and male subjects. SETTING: Anti-doping laboratory. Elite athletes (n = 823) and male and female clinical trials subjects (n = 19 and 14, respectively). INTERVENTION(S): Two open-label administration studies were carried out. One involved a control phase period followed by patch and then oral T administration in male volunteers and the other followed female volunteers during 3 menstrual cycles with 28 days of daily transdermal T application during the second month. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Serum samples were analyzed for T and A4 and the performance of a longitudinal ABP-based approach was evaluated for T and T/A4. RESULTS: An ABP-based approach set at a 99% specificity flagged all female subjects during the transdermal T application period and 44% of subjects 3 days after the treatment. T showed the best sensitivity (74%) in response to transdermal T application in males. CONCLUSIONS: Inclusion of T and T/A4 as markers in the Steroidal Module can improve the performance of the ABP to identify T transdermal application, particularly in females.

Single-run UHPLC-MS/MS method for simultaneous quantification of endogenous steroids and their phase II metabolites in serum for anti-doping purposes.

Anti-doping rule violations related to the abuse of endogenous anabolic androgenic steroids can be currently discovered by the urinary steroidal module of Athlete Biological Passport. Since this powerful tool is still subjected to some limitations due to various confounding factors altering the steroid profile, alternative strategies have been constantly proposed. Among these, the measurement of blood concentrations of endogenous steroid hormones by LC-MS is currently of increasing interest in anti-doping, bringing significant advantages for the detection of testosterone abuse in females and in individuals with deletion of UGT2B17 enzyme. Although various research groups have made significant efforts in method development, there is currently no accepted or harmonized anti-doping method for quantitative analysis of the various testosterone doping markers in blood. In this study we present a UHPLC-MS/MS method for the quantification of major circulating steroid hormones together with an extended panel of glucuro- and sulpho-conjugated phase II metabolites of androgens. Chromatographic setup was optimized by comparing the performance of three different C18 stationary phases and by the careful selection of mobile phases with the aim of separating all the target steroids, including numerous isomeric/isobaric compounds. MS parameters were fine-tuned to obtain the sensitivity needed for measuring the target analytes, that show specific serum concentrations ranging from low pg/mL for less abundant compounds to µg/mL for sulpho-conjugated steroids. Finally, sample preparation protocol was developed for the extraction of steroid hormones from 200 µL of serum and the performance was evaluated in terms of extraction recovery and matrix effect. The final method was then applied to authentic serum samples collected from healthy volunteers (40 males and 40 females) at the Blood Bank of the City of Health and Science University Hospital of Turin. The analysis of these samples allowed to obtain results on serum concentrations of the targeted steroids, with particular emphasis on previously undiscovered phase II metabolites, such as the isomers of 5-androstane-3,17-diol glucuronide. This preliminary application also enabled measuring dihydrotestosterone sulphate in male samples, efficiently separating this analyte from its isomer, epiandrosterone sulphate, which circulates in blood at high concentrations. The promising results of this study are encouraging for the measurement of blood steroid profile markers in serum and plasma samples for Athlete Biological Passport purposes.

Annual banned-substance review-Analytical approaches in human sports drug testing 2021/2022.

Also in 2021/2022, considerable efforts were invested into advancing human sports drug testing programs, recognizing and taking into account existing as well as emerging challenges in anti-doping, especially with regard to substances and methods of doping specified in the World Anti-Doping Agency's 2022 Prohibited List. In this edition of the annual banned-substance review, literature on recent developments published between October 2021 and September 2022 is summarized and discussed. Focus is put particularly on enhanced analytical approaches and complementary testing options in human doping controls, appreciating the exigence and mission in anti-doping and, equally, the contemporary "new normal" considering, for example, the athlete's exposome versus analytical sensitivity and applicable anti-doping regulations for result interpretation and management.

Variability of the urinary and blood steroid profiles in healthy and physically active women with and without oral contraception.

The steroidal module of the athlete biological passport (ABP) targets the use of pseudo-endogenous androgenous anabolic steroids in elite sport by monitoring urinary steroid profiles. Urine and blood samples were collected weekly during two consecutive oral contraceptive pill (OCP) cycles in 15 physically active women to investigate the low urinary steroid concentrations and putative confounding effect of OCP. In urine, testosterone (T) and epitestosterone (E) were below the limit of quantification of 1 ng/ml in 62% of the samples. Biomarkers' variability ranged between 31% and 41%, with a significantly lesser variability for ratios (except for T/E [41%]): 20% for androsterone/etiocholanolone (p < 0.001) and 25% for 5α-androstane-3α,17ß-diol/5ß-androstane-3α,17ß-diol (p < 0.001). In serum, markers' variability (testosterone: 24%, androstenedione: 23%, dihydrotestosterone: 19%, and T/A4: 16%) was significantly lower than in urine (p < 0.001). Urinary A/Etio increased by >18% after the first 2 weeks (p < 0.05) following withdrawal blood loss. In contrast, serum T (0.98 nmol/l during the first week) and T/A4 (0.34 the first week) decreased significantly by more than 25% and 17% (p < 0.05), respectively, in the following weeks. Our results outline steroidal variations during the OCP cycle, highlighting exogenous hormonal preparations as confounder for steroid concentrations in blood. Low steroid levels in urine samples have a clear negative impact on the subsequent interpretation of steroid profile of the ABP. With a greater analytical sensitivity and lesser variability for steroids in healthy active women, serum represents a complementary matrix to urine in the ABP steroidal module.

The effects of iron injection on blood doping biomarkers in dried blood spots.

Iron supplementation is not considered as a doping method; however, it can affect the levels of several biomarkers of the hematologic module of the athlete biological passport (ABP), such as the reticulocyte percentage (%RET) and hemoglobin (HGB) level. Thus, iron injection could be a confounding factor in antidoping analyses. Previous studies have suggested that the HGB level and the expression levels of reticulocyte-related-mRNAs, such as 5'-aminolevulinate synthase 2 (ALAS2) and carbonic anhydrase 1 (CA1), could be promising biomarkers for the ABP and detectable in dried blood spots (DBSs). Therefore, in this study, we examined the impact of iron injection on the levels of these potential biomarkers in DBSs. Reticulocyte-related-mRNAs analyses were performed by RT-qPCR. Ferritin level in DBS was measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method. Notably, there were no significant effects of iron supplementation on the levels of ALAS2 and CA1 mRNAs but by contrast, the %RET and immature reticulocyte fraction (IRF) measured in whole blood increased significantly following iron injection. As expected, iron supplementation increased the ferritin level significantly in both serum and DBS samples. In conclusion, these findings reinforce the specificity of reticulocyte-related mRNAs in DBSs as biomarkers of blood doping to target in antidoping analyses.

A comprehensive UHPLC-MS/MS method for the analysis of endogenous and exogenous steroids in serum for anti-doping purposes.

In the context of steroid analyses, the use of blood could represent a valuable complement to urine. While the blood steroid profile is currently being established to aid unveiling testosterone (T) doping, this matrix is also well suited for detection of exogenous anabolic steroids and steroid esters. In this study, a method to determine a simplified blood steroid profile in combination with the direct detection of exogenous anabolic steroids and steroid esters using just one serum aliquot was developed to obtain a comprehensive analytical workflow. Following the first chromatographic analysis of endogenous and exogenous steroids, samples were derivatised with Girard's reagent T (GT) to improve the ionisation of steroid esters and re-injected. The quantitative performance for T, androstenedione (A4) and 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) was evaluated and the method was validated for qualitative analysis of exogenous analogues with estimated limits of detection (LOD) between 50 and 500 pg/ml. To demonstrate the applicability of the method, samples collected from a clinical study with an oral administration of testosterone undecanoate (TU) to 19 male volunteers were then analysed. The individual serum steroid profiles with the endogenous markers T, A4 and DHT were established as well as the concentrations of TU. TU was detected in all 19 volunteers up to 24 h, while DHT represented the most promising biomarker in endogenous steroid profile for the detection of oral TU administration. These results showed that the selected approach to combine exogenous and endogenous steroid analysis has the potential to strengthen T doping detection in the future.

Comparison of three different blood matrices for the quantification of endogenous steroids using UHPLC-MS/MS.

Urine is currently the matrix of choice for the detection of exogenous substances but also for the application of the steroidal module of the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) consisting in a longitudinal monitoring of steroid biomarkers. To fill the limitations related to urine, the longitudinal monitoring of serum steroids concentration in the so-called 'blood steroid profile' has recently been proposed. Although serum samples are collected much less than urine samples, plasma derived from ABP whole blood samples used for the full blood count could be exploited for the quantification of endogenous steroids. Alternatively, dried blood spots (DBS) that are much easier to collect could also serve as matrix for the steroid profile. In this study, we compared the concentration levels of several endogenous steroids measured in three different blood matrices (serum, plasma and DBS) collected from 100 elite athletes participating in the 2019 Doha World Athletics Championships using UHPLC-MS/MS. Plasma and serum samples were collected by venipuncture, whereas DBS were generated from whole blood samples. Although steroids demonstrated a good agreement between the three matrices, a slight but acceptable underestimation (10%-20%) was observed in plasma compared with serum. The difference between DBS and the two other matrices was dependent of the bias between serum and plasma. We also showed that a generic HCT correction for DBS could be a valuable approach for quantitative measurements. This study demonstrates the possibility to use three different matrices for the quantification of endogenous steroids although the slight discrepancies should be considered for longitudinal evaluation.

Monitoring of hemoglobin and erythropoiesis-related mRNA with dried blood spots in athletes and patients.

Aim: We assessed the feasibility of using hematological parameters (such as hemoglobin and reticulocyte mRNA) in dried blood spot (DBS) samples to test athletes for doping and to improve patient care. Methods: Hemoglobin and erythropoiesis-related mRNAs were measured in venous blood and DBSs from both healthy athletes and hemodialysis patients. Results: We accurately measured hemoglobin changes over time in both venous blood and DBS samples. Combining hemoglobin and mRNA analyses, we detected erythropoietin injection in DBSs more sensitively and with higher efficiency by using the DBS OFF-score than by using the athlete biological passport OFF-score. Conclusion: DBS-based measurements are practical for calculating hemoglobin levels and athlete biological passport OFF-scores. This approach may help detect blood doping and help predict patient response to EPO.

Longitudinal evaluation of multiple biomarkers for the detection of testosterone gel administration in women with normal menstrual cycle.

In women, hormonal fluctuations related to the menstrual cycle may impose a great source of variability for some biomarkers of testosterone (T) administration, which can ultimately disrupt the sensitivity of their longitudinal monitoring. In this study, the sensitivity of the current urinary and haematological markers of the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP), as well as serum steroid biomarkers, was investigated for the monitoring of a 28-day T gel treatment combined with endogenous fluctuation of the menstrual cycle in 14 healthy female subjects. Additionally, the analysis of urinary target compounds was performed on a subset of samples for endogenous/exogenous origin via isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS). In serum, concentrations of T and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) increased significantly during the treatment, whereas in urine matrix the most affected biomarkers were found to be the ratios of testosterone/epitestosterone (T/E) and 5α-androstane-3α,17ß-diol/epitestosterone (5αAdiol/E). The detection capability of both urinary biomarkers was heavily influenced by [E], which fluctuated depending on the menstrual cycle, and resulted in low sensitivity of the urinary steroidal ABP module. On the contrary, an alternative approach by the longitudinal monitoring of serum T and DHT concentrations with the newly proposed T/androstenedione ratio showed higher sensitivity. The confirmatory IRMS results demonstrated that less than one third of the tested urine samples fulfilled the criteria for positivity. Results from this study demonstrated that the 'blood steroid profile' represents a powerful complementary approach to the 'urinary module' and underlines the importance of gathering bundle of evidence to support the scenario of an endogenous prohibited substance administration.

A fast screening method for the detection of CERA in dried blood spots.

Continuous erythropoietin receptor activator (CERA) is a third-generation erythropoiesis-stimulating agent that was developed for the treatment of anemia. However, misuse of CERA for doping in endurance sports has been reported. Previous studies have shown blood as the matrix of choice for the detection of CERA, due to its high molecular weight. The use of dried blood spots (DBSs) for anti-doping purposes constitutes a complementary approach to the standard urine and venous blood matrices and could facilitate sample collection and increase the number of blood samples available for analysis due to reduced costs of sample collection and transport. Here, we investigated whether CERA could be indirectly detected in extracts of single DBSs using an erythropoietin-specific immunoassay that is capable of providing results within approximately 2 h. Reconstituted DBS samples were prepared from mixtures of red blood cell pellets and serum samples. The samples were collected in a previous clinical study in which six healthy volunteers were injected with a single, 200 µg dose of CERA. Using a commercially available ELISA kit, CERA was detected in the DBSs with a detection window of up to 20 days post-injection. Furthermore, in order to demonstrate the fitness-for-purpose, three authentic doping control serum samples, which were identified as containing CERA, were analyzed by the presented methodological approach on DBS. The testing procedure described here could be used as a fast and cost-effective method for the detection of CERA abuse in sport.

The use of RNA-based 5'-aminolevulinate synthase 2 biomarkers in dried blood spots to detect recombinant human erythropoietin microdoses.

The hematological module of the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) is used for indirect detection of blood manipulations; however, the use of this method to detect doping, such as with microdoses of recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO), is problematic. For this reason, the sensitivity of ABP must be enhanced by implementing novel biomarkers. Here, we show that 5'-aminolevulinate synthase 2 (ALAS2) mRNAs are useful transcriptomic biomarkers to improve the indirect detection of rhEPO microdosing. Moreover, the sensitivity was sufficient to distinguish rhEPO administration from exposure to hypoxic conditions. Levels of mRNAs encoding carbonate anhydrase 1 (CA1) and solute carrier family 4 member 1 (SLC4A1) RNA, as well as the linear (L) and linear + circular (LC) forms of ALAS2 mRNA, were monitored for 16 days after rhEPO microdosing and during exposure to hypoxic conditions. ALAS2 mRNAs increased by 300% compared with the baseline values after rhEPO microdosing. Moreover, ALAS2 mRNAs were not significantly increased under hypoxic conditions. By contrast, CA1 mRNA was increased after both rhEPO microdosing and hypoxia, whereas SLC4A1 mRNA did not significantly increase under either condition. Furthermore, the analyses described here were performed using dried blood spots (DBSs), which provide advantages in terms of the sample collection, transport, and storage logistics. This study demonstrates that ALAS2 mRNA levels are sensitive and specific transcriptomic biomarkers for the detection of rhEPO microdosing using the hematological module of the ABP, and this method is compatible with the use of DBSs for anti-doping analyses.