Preservation of microscopic fur, feather, and bast fibers in the Mesolithic ochre grave of Majoonsuo, Eastern Finland.

The study of animal and plant fibers related to grave furnishing, garments, and grave goods in thousands-of-year-old burials provides new insights into these funerary practices. Their preservation presupposes favorable conditions, where bacterial and fungal activity is at a minimum, as in anaerobic, wet, salty, arid, or frozen environments. The extreme acidic-soil environments (i.e., podzols) of Finland pose a challenge when it comes to studying funerary deposits, as human remains are rarely found. However, its potential to preserve microparticles allows us to approach the funerary event from a totally different point of view. Here, we present the first multiproxy analyses of a Mesolithic deposit from Finland. A red-ochre burial of a child found in Majoonsuo is studied by analyzing 1) microscopic fibers, 2) fatty acids, and 3) physical-chemical (CIELab color, pH, grain size) properties of 60 soil samples and associated materials. The microscopic fibers evidenced the remains of waterfowl downy feathers, a falcon feather fragment, canid and small rodent hairs as well as bast fibers. These could have been used in furnishing the grave and as ornaments or clothes. Canid hairs could belong to a dog inhumation, or more likely to canid fur used as grave good/clothes. Samples with microparticles have more long-chain and unsaturated fatty acids, although animal species identification was not possible. Soil properties indicate that the burial was made in the local soil, adding homogeneous red ochre and removing the coarser material; no bioturbation was found. The highly acidic sandy soil, together with a slight increase in finer particles when ochre is abundant, probably resulted in micro-scale, anoxic conditions that prevented bacterial attack. This study reveals the first animal hairs and feathers from a Finnish Mesolithic funerary context, and provides clues about how their preservation was possible.

Structural equation modelling of mercury intra-skeletal variability on archaeological human remains.

Archaeological burial environments are useful archives to investigate the long-term trends and the behaviour of mercury. In order to understand the relationship between mercury, skeletons and soil, we applied Partial Least Squares - Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) to a detailed, multisampling (n = 73 bone samples +37 soil samples) design of two archaeological graves dating to the 6th to 7th centuries CE (A Lanzada site, NW Spain). Mercury content was assessed using a DMA-80, and data about bone structure and the grave soil/sediments were obtained using FTIR-ATR spectroscopy. The theoretical model is supported by proxies of bone structure, grave soil/sediments, and location of the bone within the skeleton. The general model explained 61 % of mercury variance. Additionally, Partial Least Square - Prediction Oriented Segmentation (PLS-POS) was also used to check for segmentation in the dataset. POS revealed two group of samples depending on the bone phase (hydroxyapatite or collagen) controlling the Hg content, and the corresponding models explained 86 % and 76 % of Hg variance, respectively. The results suggest that mercury behaviour in the graves is complex, and that mercury concentrations were influenced by i) the ante-mortem status of the bone matrix, related to the weight of each bone phase; ii) post-mortem evolution of bone crystallinity, where bone loses mercury with increasing alteration; and iii) the proximity of the skeletal pieces to mercury target organs, as decomposition and collapse of the thoracic and abdominal soft tissues causes a secondary mercury enrichment in bones from the body trunk during early post-mortem. Skeletons provide a source of mercury to the soil whereas soil/sediments contribute little to skeletal mercury content.

Understanding Necrosol pedogenetical processes in post-Roman burials developed on dunes sands.

In Archaeology much emphasis is dedicated to bone preservation, but less attention is paid to the burial soil (i.e., Necrosol), despite its crucial role in governing the geochemical environment. The interaction between human remains and sediments starts after inhumation, leading to bidirectional physico-chemical changes. To approach these complex, bidirectional processes, we sampled at high resolution (n = 46) two post-Roman wooden coffin burials (one single and another double), and the coeval paleosol (n = 20; nearby pedo-sedimentary sequence). The samples were analysed for physical (grain size, colour) and chemical (pH; LOI; elemental composition: FTIR-ATR, XRF, C, N) properties. Principal component analysis enabled to identify five main pedogenetical processes: decalcification, melanization, acidification, neoformation of secondary minerals (i.e., clays) and enrichment in phosphorus. Melanization, acidification and phosphorous enrichment seem to be convergent processes in Necrosols-irrespective of the parent material. Decalcification may be restricted to carbonate containing soil/sediments. Despite not mentioned in previous research, clay formation might also be an overall process. Compared to the local, coeval paleosol, pedogenesis in the studied burial soils was low (double burial) to moderate (single burial). Our results also emphasize the need to study the finer soil fractions, as they provide clues both on soil formation and bone diagenesis.

Approaching mercury distribution in burial environment using PLS-R modelling.

Mercury environmental cycle and toxicology have been widely researched. Given the long history of mercury pollution, researching mercury trends in the past can help to understand its behaviour in the present. Archaeological skeletons have been found to be useful sources of information regarding mercury loads in the past. In our study we applied a soil multi-sampling approach in two burials dated to the 5th to 6th centuries AD. PLRS modelling was used to elucidate the factors controlling mercury distribution. The model explains 72% of mercury variance and suggests that mercury accumulation in the burial soils is the result of complex interactions. The decomposition of the bodies not only was the primary source of mercury to the soil but also responsible for the pedogenetic transformation of the sediments and the formation of soil components with the ability to retain mercury. The amount of soft tissues and bone mass also resulted in differences between burials, indicating that the skeletons were a primary/secondary source of mercury to the soil (i.e. temporary sink). Within burial variability seems to depend on the proximity of the soil to the thoracic area, where the main mercury target organs were located. We also conclude that, in coarse textured soils, as the ones studied in this investigation, the finer fraction (i.e. silt + clay) should be analysed, as it is the most reactive and the one with the higher potential to provide information on metal cycling and incipient soil processes. Finally, our study stresses the need to characterise the burial soil environment in order to fully understand the role of the interactions between soil and skeleton in mercury cycling in burial contexts.

Evidence of otitis media and mastoiditis in a Medieval Islamic skeleton from Spain and possible implications for ancient surgical treatment of the condition.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate lesions on a cranium from the Iberian Peninsula and assess its medico-historical and paleopathological significance. MATERIALS: The skeletal remains of a juvenile individual found in a Medieval Islamic grave (10th -16th century) in Eastern Spain. METHODS: Macroscopic examination of the left and right temporal bones, binocular microscopy, X-ray, and Scanning Electron Microscopy - Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) were performed. RESULTS: A sub-oval perforation superior to the right mastoid process and pathological changes on the right temporal bone were identified. SEM-EDS confirmed the presence of copper in the surrounding area of the perforation. CONCLUSIONS: The observed pathological changes are most likely compatible with otitis media and subsequent mastoiditis. The sub-oval perforation could be interpreted either as an abscess or as evidence of a surgical procedure (mastoidectomy) or a combination of both; and the Cu traces may be the result of an associated object or, possibly, the application of a plaster with copper acetate used as medical treatment. SIGNIFICANCE: This case contributes to the paleopathological record and the interpretation of similar cases, and also helps in the understanding of medical care and treatment in Medieval Islam. LIMITATIONS: The lack of similar pre-modern cases of surgical intervention limits comparability to clinical cases. Suggestion for further research: Exploration into indicators of health care in past populations.

Linking structural and compositional changes in archaeological human bone collagen: an FTIR-ATR approach.

Collagen is the main structural and most abundant protein in the human body, and it is routinely extracted and analysed in scientific archaeology. Its degree of preservation is, therefore, crucial and several approaches are used to determine it. Spectroscopic techniques provide a cost-effective, non-destructive method to investigate the molecular structure, especially when combined with multivariate statistics (chemometric approach). In this study, we used FTIR-ATR spectroscopy to characterise collagen extracted from skeletons recovered from necropoleis in NW Spain spanning from the Bronze Age to eighteenth century AD. Principal components analysis was performed on a selection of bands and structural equation models (SEM) were developed to relate the collagen quality indicators to collagen structural change. Four principal components represented: (i) Cp1, transformations of the backbone protein with a residual increase in proteoglycans; (ii) Cp2, protein transformations not accompanied by changes in proteoglycans abundance; (iii) Cp3, variations in aliphatic side chains and (iv) Cp4, absorption of the OH of carbohydrates and amide. Highly explanatory SEM models were obtained for the traditional collagen quality indicators (collagen yield, C, N, C:N), but no relationship was found between quality and δ13C and δ15N ratios. The observed decrease in C and N content and increase in C:N ratios is controlled by the degradation of protein backbone components and the relative preservation of carbon-rich compounds, proteoglycans and, to a lesser extent, aliphatic moieties. Our results suggest that FTIR-ATR is an ideal technique for collagen characterization/pre-screening for palaeodiet, mobility and radiocarbon research.

Human bones tell the story of atmospheric mercury and lead exposure at the edge of Roman World.

Atmospheric metal pollution is a major health concern whose roots pre-date industrialization. This study pertains the analyses of ancient human skeletons and compares them with natural archives to trace historical environmental exposure at the edge of the Roman Empire in NW Iberia. The novelty of our approach relies on the combination of mercury, lead and lead isotopes. We found over a 700-year period that rural Romans incorporated two times more mercury and lead into their bones than post-Romans inhabiting the same site, independent of sex or age. Atmospheric pollution sources contributed on average 57% (peaking at 85%) of the total lead incorporated into the bones in Roman times, which decreased to 24% after the decline of Rome. These values and accompanying changes in lead isotopic composition mirror changes in atmospheric Pb deposition recorded in local peatlands. Thus, skeletons are a time-transgressive archive reflecting contaminant exposure.

Fringes of the empire: Diet and cultural change at the Roman to post-Roman transition in NW Iberia.

A growing number of paleodiet investigations over recent years have begun to reveal the stark dietary differences that existed between regions of the Roman Empire, as well as significant changes in subsistence strategies after its fall. The present study explores the dietary changes at the Roman to post-Roman (Germanic) transition in the Northwest Iberian Peninsula, in order to improve our understanding of the changes that occurred at end of the Roman Empire in different regions across Europe and to also consider the influence of climate had on them. The carbon and nitrogen stable isotope investigation in bone collagen from A Lanzada, NW Spain (100-700 AD), which was an important commercial, coastal settlement has been presented. A human sample of 59 individuals, 6 of them subadults, is compared with 31 faunal specimens, which include a number of marine fish. Isotope data for the terrestrial fauna reveal the influence of the sea on the local isotope baseline. Analysis of the human samples indicates a mixed marine-terrestrial diet. A shift in mean human δ(13) C values from -16.7‰ to -14.3‰ provides clear evidence for a significant change in diet in the post-Roman period, probably through the intensification of both marine resources exploitation and C4 -plant consumption (presumably millet). A deterioration of paleoenvironmental conditions, together with a poor socioeconomic situation and the arrival of new people, the Sueves, who brought a new political and socioeconomic system have been discussed as the main causes for the dietary modification in post-Roman times.

Humeral development from neonatal period to skeletal maturity--application in age and sex assessment.

The goal of the present study is to examine cross-sectional information on the growth of the humerus based on the analysis of four measurements, namely, diaphyseal length, transversal diameter of the proximal (metaphyseal) end of the shaft, epicondylar breadth and vertical diameter of the head. This analysis was performed in 181 individuals (90 ♂ and 91 ♀) ranging from birth to 25 years of age and belonging to three documented Western European skeletal collections (Coimbra, Lisbon and St. Bride). After testing the homogeneity of the sample, the existence of sexual differences (Student's t- and Mann-Whitney U-test) and the growth of the variables (polynomial regression) were evaluated. The results showed the presence of sexual differences in epicondylar breadth above 20 years of age and vertical diameter of the head from 15 years of age, thus indicating that these two variables may be of use in determining sex from that age onward. The growth pattern of the variables showed a continuous increase and followed first- and second-degree polynomials. However, growth of the transversal diameter of the proximal end of the shaft followed a fourth-degree polynomial. Strong correlation coefficients were identified between humeral size and age for each of the four metric variables. These results indicate that any of the humeral measurements studied herein is likely to serve as a useful means of estimating sub-adult age in forensic samples.

Postnatal ontogenesis of the tibia. Implications for age and sex estimation.

The growth of five variables of the tibia (diaphyseal length, diaphyseal length plus distal epiphysis, condylo-malleolar length, sagittal diameter of the proximal epiphysis, maximum breadth of the distal epiphysis) were analysed using polynomial regression in order to evaluate their significance and capacity for age and sex determination during and after growth. Data were collected from 181 (90♂ and 91♀) individuals ranging from birth to 25 years of age and belonging to three documented collections from Western Europe. Results indicate that all five variables exhibit linear behaviour during growth, which can be expressed by a first-degree polynomial function. Sexual significant differences were observed from age 15 onward in the two epiphysis measurements and condylo-malleolar length, suggesting that these three variables could be useful for sex determination in individuals older than 15 years. Strong correlation coefficients were identified between the five tibial variables and age. These results indicate that any of the studied tibial measurements is likely to serve as a useful source for estimating sub-adult age in both archaeological and forensic samples.