Urgent and emergent pediatric cardiovascular imaging.

The need for urgent or emergent cardiovascular imaging in children is rare when compared to adults. Patients may present from the neonatal period up to adolescence, and may require imaging for both traumatic and non-traumatic causes. In children, coronary pathology is rarely the cause of an emergency unlike in adults where it is the main cause. Radiology, including chest radiography and computed tomography in conjunction with echocardiography, often plays the most important role in the acute management of these patients. Magnetic resonance imaging can occasionally be useful and may be suitable in more subacute cases. Radiologists' knowledge of how to manage and interpret these acute conditions including knowing which imaging technique to use is fundamental to appropriate care. In this review, we will concentrate on the most common cardiovascular emergencies in the thoracic region, including thoracic traumatic and non-traumatic emergencies and pulmonary vascular emergencies, as well as acute clinical disorders as a consequence of primary and postoperative congenital heart disease. This review will cover situations where cardiovascular imaging may be acutely needed, and not strictly emergencies only. Imaging recommendations will be discussed according to the different clinical presentations and underlying pathology.

Pediatric Esophageal Button Battery Protocol Reduces Time From Presentation to Removal.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate implementation of an institutional protocol to reduce the time to removal of esophageal button battery (BB) and increase use of mitigation strategies. METHODS: We developed a protocol for esophageal BB management [Zakai's Protocol (ZP)]. All cases of esophageal BB impaction managed at a tertiary care center before and after implementation from 2011 to 2023 were reviewed. Time to BB removal, adherence to critical steps, and use of mitigation strategies (honey/sucralfate, acetic acid) were evaluated. RESULTS: Fifty-one patients (38 pre-ZP, 13 post-ZP) were included. Median age was 2.3 years (IQR 1.3-3.4). After implementation, the time from arrival at the institution to arrival in the operating room (OR) reduced by 4.2 h [4.6 h (IQR 3.9-6.5) to 0.4 h (IQR 0.3-0.6), p < 0.001] and there was improvement in all management steps. The number of referrals direct to otolaryngology increased from 51% to 92%, arrival notification increased from 86% to 100%, avoidance of second x-ray increased from 63% to 100%, and direct transfer to OR increased from 92% to 100%. Adherence to mitigation strategies such as preoperative administration of honey or sucralfate increased from 0% to 38%, intraoperative use of acetic acid from 3% to 77%, and nasogastric tube insertion from 53% to 92%. CONCLUSION: Implementation of ZP substantially reduced the time to BB removal and the use of mitigation strategies in our tertiary care institution. Additional strategies focused on prevention of BB ingestion, and shortening the transfer time to the tertiary care hospital are required to prevent erosive complications. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 3 Case-series Laryngoscope, 2024.

Recent advances in multimodal imaging in tetralogy of fallot and double outlet right ventricle.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: In the ever-evolving field of medical imaging, this review highlights significant advancements in preoperative and postoperative imaging for Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) and double outlet right ventricle (DORV) over the past 18 months. RECENT FINDINGS: This review showcases innovations in echocardiography such as 3D speckle tracking echocardiography (3DSTE) for assessing right ventricle-pulmonary artery coupling (RVPAC) and Doppler velocity reconstruction (DoVeR) for intracardiac flow fields evaluation. Furthermore, advances in assessment of cardiovascular anatomy using computed tomography (CT) improve the integration of imaging in ablation procedures. Additionally, the inclusion of cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) parameters as risk score predictors for morbidity, and mortality and for timing of pulmonary valve replacement (PVR) indicates its significance in clinical management. The utilization of 4D flow techniques for postoperative hemodynamic assessment promises new insights into pressure mapping. Lastly, emerging technologies such as 3D printing and 3D virtual reality are expected to improve image quality and surgical confidence in preoperative planning. SUMMARY: Developments in multimodality imaging in TOF and DORV are poised to shape the future of clinical practice in this field.

A Deep Learning Pipeline for Assessing Ventricular Volumes from a Cardiac MRI Registry of Patients with Single Ventricle Physiology.

Purpose To develop an end-to-end deep learning (DL) pipeline for automated ventricular segmentation of cardiac MRI data from a multicenter registry of patients with Fontan circulation (Fontan Outcomes Registry Using CMR Examinations [FORCE]). Materials and Methods This retrospective study used 250 cardiac MRI examinations (November 2007-December 2022) from 13 institutions for training, validation, and testing. The pipeline contained three DL models: a classifier to identify short-axis cine stacks and two U-Net 3+ models for image cropping and segmentation. The automated segmentations were evaluated on the test set (n = 50) by using the Dice score. Volumetric and functional metrics derived from DL and ground truth manual segmentations were compared using Bland-Altman and intraclass correlation analysis. The pipeline was further qualitatively evaluated on 475 unseen examinations. Results There were acceptable limits of agreement (LOA) and minimal biases between the ground truth and DL end-diastolic volume (EDV) (bias: -0.6 mL/m2, LOA: -20.6 to 19.5 mL/m2) and end-systolic volume (ESV) (bias: -1.1 mL/m2, LOA: -18.1 to 15.9 mL/m2), with high intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs > 0.97) and Dice scores (EDV, 0.91 and ESV, 0.86). There was moderate agreement for ventricular mass (bias: -1.9 g/m2, LOA: -17.3 to 13.5 g/m2) and an ICC of 0.94. There was also acceptable agreement for stroke volume (bias: 0.6 mL/m2, LOA: -17.2 to 18.3 mL/m2) and ejection fraction (bias: 0.6%, LOA: -12.2% to 13.4%), with high ICCs (>0.81). The pipeline achieved satisfactory segmentation in 68% of the 475 unseen examinations, while 26% needed minor adjustments, 5% needed major adjustments, and in 0.4%, the cropping model failed. Conclusion The DL pipeline can provide fast standardized segmentation for patients with single ventricle physiology across multiple centers. This pipeline can be applied to all cardiac MRI examinations in the FORCE registry. Keywords: Cardiac, Adults and Pediatrics, MR Imaging, Congenital, Volume Analysis, Segmentation, Quantification Supplemental material is available for this article. © RSNA, 2023.

Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging to Determine Single Ventricle Function in a Pediatric Population is Feasible in a Large Trial Setting: Experience from the Single Ventricle Reconstruction Trial Longitudinal Follow up.

The Single Ventricle Reconstruction (SVR) Trial was a randomized prospective trial designed to determine survival advantage of the modified Blalock-Taussig-Thomas shunt (BTTS) vs the right ventricle to pulmonary artery conduit (RVPAS) for patients with hypoplastic left heart syndrome. The primary aim of the long-term follow-up (SVRIII) was to determine the impact of shunt type on RV function. In this work, we describe the use of CMR in a large cohort follow up from the SVR Trial as a focused study of single ventricle function. The SVRIII protocol included short axis steady-state free precession imaging to assess single ventricle systolic function and flow quantification. There were 313 eligible SVRIII participants and 237 enrolled, ages ranging from 10 to 12.5 years. 177/237 (75%) participants underwent CMR. The most common reasons for not undergoing CMR exam were requirement for anesthesia (n = 14) or ICD/pacemaker (n = 11). A total of 168/177 (94%) CMR studies were diagnostic for RVEF. Median exam time was 54 [IQR 40-74] minutes, cine function exam time 20 [IQR 14-27] minutes, and flow quantification time 18 [IQR 12-25] minutes. There were 69/177 (39%) studies noted to have intra-thoracic artifacts, most common being susceptibility artifact from intra-thoracic metal. Not all artifacts resulted in non-diagnostic exams. These data describe the use and limitations of CMR for the assessment of cardiac function in a prospective trial setting in a grade-school-aged pediatric population with congenital heart disease. Many of the limitations are expected to decrease with the continued advancement of CMR technology.

Assessment of liver fibrosis using a 3-dimensional high-resolution late gadolinium enhancement sequence in children and adolescents with Fontan circulation.

OBJECTIVES: To assess abnormal liver enhancement on 15-20 min delayed 3D high-resolution late gadolinium enhancement (3D HR LGE) sequence in patients with Fontan circulation. METHODS: Retrospective study of pediatric Fontan patients (< 18 years old) with combined cardiac-liver MRI from January 2018 to August 2021. Abnormal hepatic enhancement was graded (0-3) for each lobe, summed for a total liver enhancement score (0-6), and compared to repaired tetralogy of Fallot (rTOF) patients. Correlations with other hepatic imaging biomarkers were performed. Temporal relationships of enhancement compared to traditional early portal venous and 5-7-min delayed phase liver imaging were analyzed. RESULTS: The Fontan group (n = 35, 13 ± 3.4 years old, median time from Fontan 10 (9-12) years) had 23/35 (66%) with delayed 3D HR LGE total liver enhancement score > 0 (range 0-5), with greater involvement of the right lobe (1 (0-1) vs 0 (0-1), p < 0.01). The rTOF group (n = 35, 14 ± 2.6 years old) had no abnormal enhancement. In the Fontan group, total liver enhancement was 3 (2-4) in the early portal venous phase, lower at 1 (1-2) in the 5-7-min delayed phase (p < 0.01), and lowest at 1 (0-2) in the 15-20-min delayed phase (p = 0.03). 3D HR LGE enhancement correlated inversely with portal vein flow (rs = - 0.42, p = 0.01) and positively with left lobe stiffness (rs = 0.51, p < 0.01). The enhancement score decreased in 13/35 (37%) between the 5-7- and 15-20-min delayed phases. CONCLUSIONS: Liver fibrosis can be assessed on 3D HR LGE sequences in patients with Fontan circulation, correlates with other imaging biomarkers of Fontan liver disease, and may add information for hepatic surveillance in this population. KEY POINTS: • Abnormal liver enhancement on 3D HR LGE sequences in Fontan patients likely represents liver fibrosis and is seen in up to 66% of children and adolescents with variable distribution and severity. • The degree of 3D HR LGE liver enhancement correlates with decreased portal vein flow and increased left hepatic lobe stiffness.

Myocardial late gadolinium enhancement using delayed 3D IR-FLASH in the pediatric population: feasibility and diagnostic performance compared to single-shot PSIR-bSSFP.

BACKGROUND: This study compares three-dimensional (3D) high-resolution (HR) late gadolinium enhancement (LGE; 3D HR-LGE) imaging using a respiratory navigated, electrocardiographically-gated inversion recovery gradient echo sequence with conventional LGE imaging using a single-shot phase-sensitive inversion recovery (PSIR) balanced steady-state free precession (bSSFP; PSIR-bSSFP) sequence for routine clinical use in the pediatric population. METHODS: Pediatric patients (0-18 years) who underwent clinical cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) with both 3D HR-LGE and single-shot PSIR-bSSFP LGE between January 2018 and June 2020 were included. Image quality (0-4) and detection of LGE in the left ventricle (LV) (per 17 segments), in the right ventricle (RV) (per 3 segments), as endocardial fibroelastosis (EFE), at the hinge points, and at the papillary muscles was analyzed by two blinded readers for each sequence. Ratios of the mean signal intensity of LGE to normal myocardium (LGE:Myo) and to LV blood pool (LGE:Blood) were recorded. Data is presented as median (1st-3rd quartiles). Wilcoxon signed rank test and chi-square analyses were used as appropriate. Inter-rater agreement was analyzed using weighted κ-statistics. RESULTS: 102 patients were included with median age at CMR of 8 (1-13) years-old and 44% of exams performed under general anesthesia. LGE was detected in 55% of cases. 3D HR LGE compared to single-shot PSIR-bSSFP had longer scan time [4:30 (3:35-5:34) vs 1:11 (0:47-1:32) minutes, p < 0.001], higher image quality ratings [3 (3-4) vs 2 (2-3), p < 0.001], higher LGE:Myo [23.7 (16.9-31.2) vs 5.0 (2.9-9.0), p < 0.001], detected more segments of LGE in both the LV [4 (2-8) vs 3 (1-7), p = 0.045] and RV [1 (1-1) vs 1 (0-1), p < 0.001], and also detected more cases of LGE with 13/56 (23%) of patients with LGE only detectable by 3D HR LGE (p < 0.001). 3D HR LGE specifically detected a greater proportion of RV LGE (27/27 vs 17/27, p < 0.001), EFE (11/11 vs 5/11, p = 0.004), and papillary muscle LGE (14/15 vs 4/15, p < 0.001). Inter-rater agreement for the recorded variables ranged from 0.42 to 1.00. CONCLUSIONS: 3D HR LGE achieves greater image quality and detects more LGE than conventional single-shot PSIR-bSSFP LGE imaging, and should be considered an alternative to conventional LGE sequences for routine clinical use in the pediatric population.

Imaging of pediatric cardiac tumors: A COG Diagnostic Imaging Committee/SPR Oncology Committee White Paper.

Cardiac tumors in children are rare and the majority are benign. The most common cardiac tumor in children is rhabdomyoma, usually associated with tuberous sclerosis complex. Other benign cardiac masses include fibromas, myxomas, hemangiomas, and teratomas. Primary malignant cardiac tumors are exceedingly rare, with the most common pathology being soft tissue sarcomas. This paper provides consensus-based imaging recommendations for the evaluation of patients with cardiac tumors at diagnosis and follow-up, including during and after therapy.

Quantification of lymphatic burden in patients with Fontan circulation by T2 MR lymphangiography and associations with adverse Fontan status.

AIMS: To quantify thoracic lymphatic burden in paediatric Fontan patients using MRI and correlate with clinical status. METHODS AND RESULTS: Paediatric Fontan patients (<18-years-old) with clinical cardiac MRI that had routine lymphatic 3D T2 fast spin echo (FSE) imaging performed from May 2017 to October 2019 were included. 'Lymphatic burden' was quantified by thresholding-based segmentation of the 3D T2 FSE maximum intensity projection image and indexed to body surface area, performed by two independent readers blinded to patient status. There were 48 patients (27 males) with median age at MRI of 12.9 (9.4-14.7) years, time from Fontan surgery to MRI of 9.1 (5.9-10.4) years, and follow-up time post-Fontan surgery of 9.4 (6.6-11.0) years. Intraclass correlation coefficient between two observers for lymphatic burden was 0.96 (0.94-0.98). Greater lymphatic burden correlated with post-Fontan operation hospital length of stay and duration of chest tube drainage (rs = 0.416, P = 0.004 and rs = 0.439, P = 0.002). Median lymphatic burden was greater in patients with chylous effusions immediately post-Fontan (178 (118-393) vs. 113 (46-190) mL/m2, P = 0.028), and in patients with composite adverse Fontan status (n = 13) defined by heart failure (n = 3), transplant assessment (n = 2), recurrent effusions (n = 6), Fontan thrombus (n = 2), and/or PLE (n = 6) post-Fontan (435 (137-822) vs. 114 (51-178) mL/m2, P = 0.003). Lymphatic burden > 600 mL/m2 was associated with late adverse Fontan status with sensitivity of 57% and specificity of 95%. CONCLUSION: Quantification of MR lymphatic burden is a reliable tool to assess the lymphatics post-Fontan and is associated with clinical status.

Hemodynamic effects of pulmonary regurgitation in one and one-half ventricle repair.

The pulmonary circulation after one and one-half ventricle repair is complex because of the direct connection of two sources of blood flow. Associated pulmonary regurgitation further complicates the pulmonary circulation. We report the complex hemodynamics depicted by phase-contrast magnetic resonance imaging in a patient with one and one-half ventricle circuit and severe pulmonary regurgitation. Antegrade superior vena caval flow occurred almost exclusively during diastole and regurgitated into the right ventricle. Consequently, the entire systemic venous return reached the right ventricle during diastole and is pumped back into the pulmonary arteries in systole. The case highlights the importance of analyzing flow patterns phase-by phase throughout the cardiac cycle instead of relying on the net flow volumes through each source of pulmonary blood flow.

MRI Phase-Contrast Blood Flow in Fasting Pediatric Patients with Fontan Circulation Correlates with Exercise Capacity.

Purpose: To assess regional blood flow in fasting pediatric patients with Fontan circulation by using MRI and to explore associations with clinical parameters. Materials and Methods: In this retrospective study, pediatric patients who had undergone the Fontan procedure (<18 years of age) and had undergone clinical cardiac MRI, performed after at least 4 hours of fasting, between 2018 and 2021 were included. Regional blood flow was compared with published healthy volunteer data (n = 19) and assessed in relation to hemodynamic parameters and clinical status. Data are presented as medians, with first to third quartiles in parentheses. Mann-Whitney U, Kruskal-Wallis, χ2, and Spearman rank correlation tests were used. Results: Fifty-five patients (38 boys) with median age at MRI of 14 years (IQR, 11-16 years) and median time from Fontan procedure to MRI of 10 years (IQR, 8-12 years) were included. Patients after Fontan procedure had lower ascending aortic, inferior vena cava, and total systemic blood flow compared with healthy volunteers (3.00 L/min/m2 [IQR, 2.75-3.30 L/min/m2] vs 3.61 L/min/m2 [IQR, 3.29-4.07 L/min/m2]; 1.73 L/min/m2 [IQR, 1.40-1.94 L/min/m2] vs 2.24 L/min/m2 [IQR, 2.06-2.75 L/min/m2]; 2.78 L/min/m2 [IQR, 2.45-3.10 L/min/m2] vs 3.95 L/min/m2 [IQR, 3.20-4.30 L/min/m2], respectively; P < .001). Portal vein flow was greater than hepatic vein flow in 25% of patients. Fontan blood flow was inversely correlated with pre-Fontan mean pulmonary artery pressure (Spearman rank correlation coefficient [rs ]= -0.42, P = .005) and ventricular end diastolic pressure (rs = -0.33, P = .04) and positively correlated with post-Fontan percent predicted oxygen consumption at peak workload (rs = 0.34, P = .02). Conclusion: Reference ranges are provided for regional systemic blood flow derived by using MRI in fasting pediatric patients with Fontan circulation, who had lower systemic blood flow compared with healthy volunteers. Lower fasting Fontan blood flow correlated with lower exercise capacity.Keywords: Pediatrics, Heart, Congenital, MR Imaging, Hemodynamics/Flow Dynamics, Cardiac Supplemental material is available for this article. © RSNA, 2022.

Innocent until proven guilty? Longstanding atrial ectopy preceding cardiac rhabdomyoma diagnosis in tuberous sclerosis complex: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Cardiac rhabdomyoma are the most common cardiac tumour in childhood and are associated with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) up to 96% of infant cases. They classically manifest in the foetal and neonatal period, undergo spontaneous regression in the first years of life and are associated with arrhythmia in part due to interruption of normal conduction pathways by the tumour. CASE SUMMARY: We present a case of a 3-year-old boy with a long-standing history of atrial ectopy who was incidentally found to be in atrial flutter due to a new, rapidly growing cardiac rhabdomyoma impacting ventricular function. The boy was later confirmed with further investigation and TSC1 gene test to have TSC. DISCUSSION: Cardiac Rhabdomyoma does not always present in the infantile period. Any ongoing or new cardiac concern in patient with TSC, even if seemingly minor, should warrant more frequent cardiac evaluation and investigation.

Pediatric Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: Exploring the Genotype-Phenotype Association.

Pediatric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most common form of cardiomyopathy in children and a leading cause of sudden cardiac death. Yet, the association between genotype variation, phenotype expression, and adverse events in pediatric HCM has not been fully elucidated. Although the literature on this topic is evolving in adult HCM, the evidence in children is lacking. Solidifying our understanding of this relationship could improve risk stratification as well as improve our comprehension of the underlying pathophysiological characteristics of pediatric HCM. In this state-of-the-art review, we examine the current literature on genetic variations in HCM and their association with outcomes in children, discuss the current approaches to identifying cardiovascular phenotypes in pediatric HCM, and explore possible avenues that could improve sudden cardiac death risk assessment.

Management of Patients With Single-Ventricle Physiology Across the Lifespan: Contributions From Magnetic Resonance and Computed Tomography Imaging.

Cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) and cardiac computed tomography (CCT) are robust cross-sectional imaging modalities that are increasingly being used to guide the diagnosis and management of those born with single-ventricle physiology. The purpose of this review is to acquaint the reader with the wide range of cross-sectional imaging applications that can be applied in this population. Illustrative examples of information provided by CMR and CCT are included, such as delineation of cardiac anatomy, measurement of ventricular volumetry, interrogation of vascular anatomy and flows, evaluation of myocardial viability, and exclusion of thromboembolic disease. Focus is placed on the appropriate selection and timing of advanced cardiac imaging modalities, and differentiations are made between established indications for imaging and emerging applications (such as 4-dimensional [4D] flow assessment and parametric imaging for identification of diffuse fibrosis using CMR). Potential CMR and CCT contributions in the selection of interventional strategies in the child and for surveillance of postoperative complications in the adult are highlighted. Furthermore, the importance of extracardiac cross-sectional imaging in the single-ventricle population is emphasized given the recognition that complications post-Fontan palliation are not limited to the cardiovascular system but will often include extracardiac manifestations of disease (such as hepatic disease or lymphatic abnormalities), While the value of CMR and CCT for contemporary clinical care of individuals born with single-ventricle physiology appears to be well-established, further research will be necessary to explore the impact of risk stratification using imaging biomarkers on clinical outcomes following Fontan palliation.

Semiquantitative characterization of dynamic magnetic resonance perfusion of the liver in pediatric Fontan patients.

BACKGROUND: Dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the liver in pediatric Fontan patients often shows peripheral reticular areas of hypoenhancement, which has not been studied in detail. OBJECTIVE: To semiquantitatively score the hepatic MR perfusion abnormality seen in pediatric Fontan patients, and to correlate the perfusion abnormality with functional clinical and hemodynamic parameters. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All children (< 18 years old) after Fontan palliation with combined clinical cardiac and liver MRI performed between May 2017 and April 2019 were considered for inclusion. A semiquantitative perfusion score was used to assess the severity of the hepatic reticular pattern seen on dynamic contrast-enhanced liver imaging. The liver was divided into four sections: right posterior, right anterior, left medial and left lateral. Each liver section was assigned a score from 0 to 4 depending on the amount of abnormal reticular hypoenhancement. Scoring was assigned for each section of the liver across eight successive dynamic contrast-enhanced modified spoiled gradient echo runs. Scores were correlated with clinical and hemodynamic parameters. RESULTS: All Fontan children showed hepatic reticular hypoenhancement by MRI, most severe in the early portal venous phase with a median maximum total perfusion abnormality score of 12 (range: 9-14). All perfusion abnormalities progressively resolved during the hepatic venous phase. Perfusion abnormality scores were greatest in the right compared to left hepatic lobes (7 range: [6-8] vs. 5 [range: 3-6], P < 0.01). The maximum left hepatic lobe perfusion abnormality scores were greatest in children with versus without imaging signs of portal hypertension (8 [range: 7-8] vs. 4 [range: 3-5], P < 0.01). High unconjugated bilirubin and low platelets correlated with greater perfusion abnormality (R = 0.450, P = 0.024, and R = - 0.458, P < 0.01, respectively). Age at MRI, time from Fontan, focal liver lesions and cardiac MRI hemodynamic parameters did not show significant correlations with the severity of the liver perfusion abnormality. CONCLUSION: All Fontan children have hepatic reticular hypoenhancement abnormalities seen with MRI that are most severe in the right hepatic lobe and universally show gradual resolution through the hepatic venous phase. Perfusion abnormality in the left hepatic lobe is worse in children with portal hypertension.

Accuracy of Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Diagnosing Pediatric Cardiac Masses: A Multicenter Study.

BACKGROUND: After diagnosis of a cardiac mass, clinicians must weigh the benefits and risks of ascertaining a tissue diagnosis. Limited data are available on the accuracy of previously developed noninvasive pediatric cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR)-based diagnostic criteria. OBJECTIVES: The goals of this study were to: 1) evaluate the CMR characteristics of pediatric cardiac masses from a large international cohort; 2) test the accuracy of previously developed CMR-based diagnostic criteria; and 3) expand diagnostic criteria using new information. METHODS: CMR studies (children 0-18 years of age) with confirmatory histological and/or genetic diagnosis were analyzed by 2 reviewers, without knowledge of prior diagnosis. Diagnostic accuracy was graded as: 1) single correct diagnosis; 2) correct diagnosis among a differential; or 3) incorrect diagnosis. RESULTS: Of 213 cases, 174 (82%) had diagnoses that were represented in the previously published diagnostic criteria. In 70% of 174 cases, both reviewers achieved a single correct diagnosis (94% of fibromas, 71% of rhabdomyomas, and 50% of myxomas). When ≤2 differential diagnoses were included, both reviewers reached a correct diagnosis in 86% of cases. Of 29 malignant tumors, both reviewers indicated malignancy as a single diagnosis in 52% of cases. Including ≤2 differential diagnoses, both reviewers indicated malignancy in 83% of cases. Of 6 CMR sequences examined, acquisition of first-pass perfusion and late gadolinium enhancement were independently associated with a higher likelihood of a single correct diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: CMR of cardiac masses in children leads to an accurate diagnosis in most cases. A comprehensive imaging protocol is associated with higher diagnostic accuracy.

Contrast-enhanced body magnetic resonance angiography: how we do it.

This review introduces the basic principles of contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance (MR) angiography and details four contrast-enhanced MR angiography sequences for body imaging with extracellular gadolinium-based contrast agents in pediatric patients. Specifically, this review covers (1) respiratory-navigated, cardiac-gated MR angiography; (2) time-resolved MR angiography; (3) conventional MR angiography; and (4) modified spoiled gradient echo variants. We present and discuss indications, technical considerations, sequence optimization, advantages and disadvantages, along with practical tips and illustrative case examples for each sequence.

Anterior Translocation of the Right Pulmonary Artery to Relieve Bronchial Compression in Truncus Arteriosus With Interrupted Aortic Arch.

We report an anterior translocation of the right pulmonary artery procedure to relieve severe left bronchial obstruction that was caused by right pulmonary artery stent placement in a 1-year-old patient with truncus arteriosus and interrupted aortic arch. After neonatal repair, the patient re-presented with severe truncal valve regurgitation, right pulmonary artery stenosis, and severe biventricular dysfunction, which was treated with truncal valve repair and right pulmonary artery plasty. The patient suffered from left bronchial compression from right pulmonary artery stent placement, which was successfully treated by the translocation procedure. Bronchial stenosis was successfully relieved by the translocation procedure. Indications, advantages, and disadvantages of this procedure are discussed.