Children's eating behaviours and related constructs: conceptual and theoretical foundations and their implications.

BACKGROUND: There is a substantial body of research on children's eating behaviours (e.g., food responsiveness and fussiness) and related constructs (e.g., eating in the absence of hunger, appetite self-regulation). This research provides a foundation for understanding children's dietary intakes and healthy eating behaviours, as well as efforts at intervention, whether in relation to food avoidance, overeating and/or trajectories to excess weight gain. The success of these efforts and their associated outcomes is dependent on the theoretical foundation and conceptual clarity of the behaviours and constructs. This, in turn contributes to the coherence and precision of the definitions and measurement of these behaviours and constructs. Limited clarity in these areas ultimately creates uncertainty around the interpretation of findings from research studies and intervention programs. At present there does not appear to be an overarching theoretical framework of children's eating behaviours and associated constructs, or for separate domains of children's eating behaviours/constructs. The main purpose of the present review was to examine the possible theoretical foundations of some of the main current questionnaire and behavioural measures of children's eating behaviours and related constructs. METHODS: We reviewed the literature on the most prominent measures of children's eating behaviours for use with children aged ~ 0-12 years. We focused on the explanations and justifications for the original design of the measures and whether these included theoretical perspectives, as well as current theoretical interpretations (and difficulties) of the behaviours and constructs. RESULTS: We found that the most commonly used measures had their foundations in relatively applied or practical concerns rather than theoretical perspectives. CONCLUSIONS: We concluded, consistent with Lumeng & Fisher (1), that although existing measures have served the field well, to advance the field as a science, and better contribute to knowledge development, increased attention should be directed to the conceptual and theoretical foundations of children's eating behaviours and related constructs. Suggestions for future directions are outlined.

Inhalation of low-dose basil (Ocimum basilicum) essential oil improved cardiovascular health and plasma lipid markers in high fat diet-induced obese rats.

This study investigated the antiobesogenic effects of the inhalation of volatile compounds derived from basil essential oil (BEO) in high fat diet-induced obese rats. A total of 47 volatile compounds were identified in BEO using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Major volatile compounds identified by olfactory testing include linalool oxide, linalool, 1-menthene, and carvone. White adipose tissue significantly decreased in the rats that inhaled 0.3% BEO (more than +10%) compared to the control. Plasma marker analysis showed increased high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (ca. double fold) and decreased low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (more than -30%) levels in inhaled 1% BEO group compared to the control. Leptin significantly decreased in the 0.3 and 1% BEO groups (more than -70 and -85%, respectively). Last, systolic blood pressure at week 12 was significantly lower in inhaled 1% BEO group (more than -15%) compared to the control. The results of this study suggest that BEO inhalation may be effective in managing plasma lipid markers (cholesterols and leptin) and possibly metabolic disorders such as obesity. Practical Application: Changes in metabolic health markers, which are effected by inhalation of volatiles in basil (Ocimum basilicum) essential oil, will provide physiological variations in vivo to the public. In this study, the opposite effects were identified between 0.3% and 1% inhalation, respectively. Therefore, our findings will provide optimized and useful guidance for inhalation of basil essential oil.

Development and application of specific questions to classify a child as food texture sensitive.

Understanding food texture sensitivity in children is important in guiding food selection. The objective of this work was to develop a short questionnaire that could be completed by parents in nonclinical settings to provide a categorization for food texture sensitivity in children. This study evaluated the distribution of children as texture sensitive (TS) or non-texture sensitive (NTS) and the predictive validity of these questions to explain rejection of specific food textures. Three sets of survey data were examined, including data from a home-use test (HUT) in children with and without Down syndrome (DS), and lingual tactile sensitivity measured by grating orientation task (GOT). From three parent-completed surveys, the use of the questionnaire yielded a similar distribution of children in the TS category (16-22%) as previously reported. TS children (4-36 months) were more likely to reject specific food textures, including chewy, hard, lumpy, and "tough meat" (p < .05). A higher percentage of children with a diagnosis of DS were TS (36.9%). Children who were TS showed increased negative behaviors to foods and ate less than NTS children. In older children (5-12 years), TS children were fussier than NTS children (p < .001). Lingual tactile sensitivity was not significantly different by TS/NTS categorization (p = .458). This study demonstrated that the use of these five questions specific to food texture provides a useful tool in categorizing a child as TS/NTS, with this information being useful in selecting preferred food textures. Future studies involving these TS questions should perform psychometric assessments and measures of criterion validity using other questionnaires.

Chemosensory approach supported-analysis of wintering radishes produced in Jeju island by different processing methods.

The purpose of this study was to investigate sensory characteristics in radishes, processed through different methods, using chemosensory-assisted instruments. For electronic tongue (E-tongue) analysis, freeze-dried radish was high in the sensor values of sourness, umami, and sweetness, however, the saltiness was the lowest. In particular, the sensor values of taste freeze-dried radish have changed more than that of thermally processed radishes. Unlike the results of E-tongue, volatiles of freeze-dried radish have changed less than that of thermally processed radishes. In detail, amounts of sulfur-containing compound (thiophene) in freeze-dried radish were relatively higher than thermally processed radishes by an electronic nose. For gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and GC-olfactometry, the amount of sulfur-containing compounds in freeze-dried radish were also relatively higher than thermally processed radishes, and odor active compounds were also high in freeze-dried radish.

Chemosensory Device Assisted-Estimation of the Quality of Edible Oils with Repetitive Frying.

This study investigated chemosensory degradations of soybean and canola oils with repeated frying in order to estimate the quality of the oils. METHODS: Chemical parameters including oxygen induction time, acid value, p-anisidine value, malondialdehyde, and total polar compounds were measured. Electronic nose and electronic tongue analyses were performed to assess sensory properties. Multivariate analyses were employed to investigate relationships among tastes and volatile compounds using principal component analysis (PCA) and Pearson's correlation analysis. RESULTS: All chemical parameters increased with repeated frying in both oils. Electronic nose analysis found ethyl butyrate, 2-heptenal, and 2,4-pentanedione as major volatiles for soybean oil and ethyl butyrate and linalool for canola oil. As the numbers of frying increased, all volatiles showed an increased concentration in various extents. In multivariate analyses, ethyl butyrate revealed strong positive correlations with sourness, umami, and sweetness, and umami showed strong positive correlations with sourness and saltiness (p < 0.05). PCA confirmed that in PC1 with 49% variance, sourness, saltiness, and umami were at similar rates while acetyl pyrazine, 2,4-pentadieone, and 1-octanol were found at similar rates. Canola oil was chemically more stable and less susceptible to deterioration in all chemical parameters compared to soybean oil, resulting in a relatively better quality oil when repeatedly fried. CONCLUSION: The results suggested that minimum repeated frying (5 times) degrades chemosensory characteristics of both oils, thereby compromising their quality. The findings of this study will be utilized as a foundation for quality control of fried foods in food industry, fried food development, and fast-food industry.

Peanut Coffee: Enhancement of Nutritional, Physicochemical, and Sensory Characteristics in Coffee Brewed with Conventional and High-Oleic Peanut Extracts.

This study investigated nutritional, physicochemical, and sensory characteristics of coffee brewed with conventional and high-oleic peanut extracts. Compared to normal coffee, peanut coffee exhibited more diverse amino acids compositions. In constituent amino acids composition, peanut coffee exhibited increased proportions of glutamic and aspartic acids but decreased phenylalanine. Peanut coffee had higher thiamin, niacin, and sugar contents, improved antioxidant capacity, and lower caffeine contents. In electronic tongue analysis, peanut coffee showed an increased intensity of sweetness and umami taste but decreased bitterness, corresponding to the result of amino acids compositions and caffeine and sugar contents. In volatile compounds analysis using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) with the sniffing test, peanut coffee had high concentrations of 2-ethyl-3,6-dimethylpyrazine, 2,2'-methylenebis-furan, and furfuryl propionate, which were perceived as peanut and roasted odors in the sniffing test. This study will provide informative data in extending the application of peanut to coffee and developing novel coffee, with added peanut, that is nutritionally beneficial.

Platycodon grandiflorum roots: A comprehensive study on odor/aroma and chemical properties during roasting.

Platycodon is a ubiquitous plant widely grown in Asia. This study investigated changes in odor/aroma associated sensory attributes and chemical properties in Platycodon grandiflorum roots upon roasting. Amino acid analysis, electronic tongue analysis, chemical property analysis, volatile compound analysis, GC-olfactometry-assisted sensory attributes, and electronic nose analysis were performed. In results, amino acid profiles showed diverse patterns. Electronic tongue analysis somewhat corresponded to the free amino acid profiles. Total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity, and browning intensity significantly increased up to 4 min and slightly decreased afterward. Various pyrazines relevant to roasted odor such as 3-ethyl-2, 5-dimethyl-pyrazine, and 2, 6-dimethyl-pyrazine were generated by roasting. In electronic nose analysis, positive odor parameter significantly increased and potential unpleasant odorants significantly decreased over time. This is believed to be the first study demonstrating overall insight on odor/aroma and chemical characteristics and utilizing objective sensory measures on roasted Platycodon grandiflorum roots for food applications. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This study will be utilized (a) to researchers and food companies who are interested in medicinal foods (b) to individuals and food industry that search for changes in sensory characteristics and chemical changes of foods induced by roasting, and (c) to farmers and crop producers who look for utilization and applications of Platycodon grandiflorum roots as food sources and ingredients.

Comprehensive changes in volatile/nonvolatile compounds and flavor and physicochemical characteristics in Angelica gigas Nakai roots by thermal processing.

This study investigated the changes of physicochemical and flavor characteristics of Angelica gigas Nakai roots during roasting. Glutamic acid and arginine were higher in constituent amino acids. In the taste value, glutamic acid was highest in constituent and free amino acids. Total phenol contents were highest in 0 min and lowest in 3 min. Hundred twenty-six volatile compounds were detected by GC/MS during roasting. α-pinene, eudesmol, nonane, and limonene were detected as major volatile compounds. For antioxidant ability, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl did not change during roasting, and 2,2'-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid showed the highest value in 3 min. Browning intensity showed a slight decrease over time. In Electronic nose, fragrance increased by roasting, and strength, NH3 , and H2 S decreased significantly. In Electronic tongue, sweetness, bitterness, and umami taste increased by roasting, and this was related to amino acid composition. The results provide basic data on the physicochemical and flavor characteristics of A. gigas Nakai according to the roasting process. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Angelica gigas Nakai has been known as a medicinal herb in Asian countries and usually consumed in powder, tea, and snacks. In order to produce the powder, tea, or snacks with A. gigas Nakai, thermal treatment is an essential and critical process. Despite that existing studies reported many physiological benefits and functional properties of A. gigas Nakai, studies have rarely discovered how the nutritional properties and volatile compounds of A. gigas Nakai alter when it undergoes thermal treatment. Therefore, this study will be utilized as basic data to optimize the thermal processing conditions (e.g., roasting time) for the production of food products with A. gigas Nakai such as tea and snacks. This study further provides objective chemical measures of sensory profiles of A. gigas Nakai using electronic tongue and electronic nose during the thermal processing.

Thermal Coursed Effect of Comprehensive Changes in the Flavor/Taste of Cynanchi wilfordii.

This study aims to investigate alterations in volatile compounds and chemical components that may affect the sensory properties of Cynanchi wilfordii roasted at 120 °C and 180 °C for various durations of time (0 to 4 min). For volatile compound profiles, tridecane, tetradecane, and ethyl hexyl ether were detected as major compounds of the sample without roasting. As the roasting temperature increased, the types of volatile compounds increased, whereas the content decreased with an increase in heterocyclic compound generation. The sample roasted at 120 °C for 1 min showed a notably different profile pattern from the other roasted samples. For the sniffing test performed by trained panelists using gas chromatography olfactometry, naphthalene and nonanal, which induce spicy and raw C. wilfordii, respectively, were perceived most intensely throughout all the samples. In the electronic tongue analysis, the sample roasting at 180 °C showed an increased and decreased pattern in umami taste and saltiness, respectively, with increased roasting time. Electronic tongue analysis results showed that the sample roasted at 180 °C for 4 min would have the best sensory preference. Along with the volatile compound profiles, the sample roasted at 120 °C for 1 min had more sourness than the other samples, and would potentially have distinctive sensory characteristics. This study should provide baseline data on variations in the sensory properties and industrial applications of C. wilfordii upon roasting. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Various applications of food ingredients through changes in sensory characteristics by roasting will provide consumers more options for food selections. Accordingly, this study will be utilized by (1) individuals and food companies who are interested in functional foods, (2) individuals and food industries that seek optimum roasting conditions for proper sensory characteristics of foods, and (3) farmers and crop producers who seek for utilization the applications of Cynanchi wilfordii as a food ingredient.

Perilla frutescens Britton: A Comprehensive Study on Flavor/Taste and Chemical Properties During the Roasting Process.

This study investigated changes of volatile compounds, sniffing test-assisted sensory properties, taste associated-constituent and free amino acid compositions, taste description by electronic-tongue, and chemical characteristics in Perilla frutescens Britton var. acuta Kudo after roasting at 150 °C for 0⁻8 min. A total of 142 volatile compounds were identified, among which methyl benzoate and limonene were predominant, regardless of roasting time, and these were also detected as the major compounds in the sniffing test by GC-olfactometry. For constituent amino acids analyzed by the acid hydrolysis method using hydrochloric acid (HCl), the concentration of glutamic acid, aspartic acid, and leucine showed an increase pattern with increased roasting time, which results in umami taste, sour taste, and bitter taste, respectively. For free amino acids, valine and hydroxylysine eliciting bitter and bitter and sweet tastes, respectively, also tend to increase by roasting. The pattern of amino acid concentration by roasting was readily matched to the taste description by electronic-tongue but that of sweetness and sourness by electronic-tongue did not coincide with the amino acid composition. For the chemical properties, total phenolic content, antioxidative capacity, and browning intensity tend to increase with roasting but decreased by 8 min. The results of this study provide fundamental information on perilla in both the food industry and cooking environment for the sake of increasing the utilization of perilla as a food source and ingredient.

Wasabia koreana Nakai: A Preliminary Study on Nutrients and Chemical Compounds That May Impact Sensory Properties.

In this study, the nutritional, functional, and chemical measurements of sensory attributes of different parts of wasabi, namely, leaf, petiole, and rhizome, were investigated. Proximate composition analysis showed the presence of high amounts of carbohydrates in the rhizome and amino acid composition analysis confirmed high proportions of glutamic acid and aspartic acid in all three parts. While proximate composition showed low lipid content in wasabi, ω-3 fatty acids accounted for a high proportion (>44%) of the total lipids. Wasabi leaves had high vitamin C and total phenolic contents, and thus demonstrated antioxidant capacity. Allyl isothiocyanate, which gives wasabi its characteristic pungent taste, was identified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and an electronic nose. On an electronic tongue, wasabi leaves showed compounds associated with sourness and saltiness while the petiole had high content of compounds associated with sweetness and bitterness. This study provides basic data for the utilization of wasabi parts as food materials based on their nutritional, functional, and chemical measure of sensory attributes.

Effect of Volatile Organic Chemicals in Chrysanthemum indicum Linné on Blood Pressure and Electroencephalogram.

This study identified the volatile organic compounds in the essential oils that are extracted from Chrysanthemum indicum Linné (C. indicum Linné) and investigated the effects of the inhalation of these compounds. We detected a total of 41 volatile organic compounds, including 32 hydrocarbons, four acids, three alcohols, two ketones, and one aldehyde. In a sniffing test, seven types of volatile organic compounds were identified. Furthermore, the volatile organic compounds in C. indicum Linné that were identified were found to be derived from 1,8-cineole and camphor. After inhalation of the essential oils, the subjects' systolic blood pressure and heart rate decreased. This indicates that inhalation of the essential oils extracted from C. indicum Linné provides mental and physical relaxation. We examined the changes in electroencephalogram findings that are observed after C. indicum Linné essential oil inhalation. An increase in theta and alpha waves, which usually appear during relaxation, as well as a decrease in beta and gamma waves, which appear during brain activity such as excessive attention, were noted. These results indicate that C. indicum Linné essential oil inhalation helps to reduce blood pressure and may provide mental and physical relaxation.

Reversible Assembly of Terpyridine Incorporated Norbornene-Based Polymer via a Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization and Its Self-Healing Property.

We induced a terpyridine moiety into a norbornene-based polymer to demonstrate its self-healing property, without an external stimulus, such as light, heat, or healing agent, using metal⁻ligand interactions. We synthesized terpyridine incorporated norbornene-based polymers using a ring-opening metathesis polymerization. The sol state of diluted polymer solutions was converted into supramolecular assembled gels, through the addition of transition metal ions (Ni2+, Co2+, Fe2+, and Zn2+). In particular, a supramolecular complex gel with Zn2+, which is a metal with a lower binding affinity, demonstrated fast self-healing properties, without any additional external stimuli, and its mechanical properties were completely recovered.