Charge Transfer Mechanism on a Cobalt-Polyoxometalate-TiO2 Photoanode for Water Oxidation in Acid.

We constructed a photoanode comprising the homogeneous water oxidation catalyst (WOC) Na8K8[Co9(H2O)6(OH)3(HPO4)2(PW9O34)3] (Co9POM) and nanoporous n-type TiO2 photoelectrodes (henceforth "TiO2-Co9POM") by first anchoring the cationic 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (APS) ligand on a metal oxide light absorber, followed by treatment of the metal oxide-APS with a solution of the polyoxometalate WOC. The resulting TiO2-Co9POM photoelectrode exhibits a 3-fold oxygen evolution photocurrent enhancement compared to bare TiO2 in aqueous acidic conditions. Three-element (Co 2p, W 4f, and O 1s) X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy studies before and after use indicate that surface-bound Co9POM retains its structural integrity throughout all photoelectrochemical water oxidation studies reported here. Extensive charge-transfer mechanistic studies by photoelectrochemical techniques and transient absorption spectroscopy elucidate that Co9POM serves as an efficient WOC, extracting photogenerated holes from TiO2 on the picosecond time scale. This is the first comprehensive mechanistic investigation elucidating the roles of polyoxometalates in POM-photoelectrode hybrid oxygen evolution reaction systems.

Charge Transfer from Quantum-Confined 0D, 1D, and 2D Nanocrystals.

The properties of colloidal quantum-confined semiconductor nanocrystals (NCs), including zero-dimensional (0D) quantum dots, 1D nanorods, 2D nanoplatelets, and their heterostructures, can be tuned through their size, dimensionality, and material composition. In their photovoltaic and photocatalytic applications, a key step is to generate spatially separated and long-lived electrons and holes by interfacial charge transfer. These charge transfer properties have been extensively studied recently, which is the subject of this Review. The Review starts with a summary of the electronic structure and optical properties of 0D-2D nanocrystals, followed by the advances in wave function engineering, a novel way to control the spatial distribution of electrons and holes, through their size, dimension, and composition. It discusses the dependence of NC charge transfer on various parameters and the development of the Auger-assisted charge transfer model. Recent advances in understanding multiple exciton generation, decay, and dissociation are also discussed, with an emphasis on multiple carrier transfer. Finally, the applications of nanocrystal-based systems for photocatalysis are reviewed, focusing on the photodriven charge separation and recombination processes that dictate the function and performance of these materials. The Review ends with a summary and outlook of key remaining challenges and promising future directions in the field.

A Resilient Platform for the Discrete Functionalization of Gold Surfaces Based on N-Heterocyclic Carbene Self-Assembled Monolayers.

We describe the synthesis and characterization of a versatile platform for gold functionalization, based on self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of distal-pyridine-functionalized N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHC) derived from bis(NHC) Au(I) complexes. The SAMs are characterized using polarization-modulation infrared reflectance-absorption spectroscopy, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The binding mode is examined computationally using density functional theory, including calculations of vibrational spectra and direct comparisons to the experimental spectroscopic signatures of the monolayers. Our joint computational and experimental analyses provide structural information about the SAM binding geometries under ambient conditions. Additionally, we examine the reactivity of the pyridine-functionalized SAMs toward H2SO4 and W(CO)5(THF) and verify the preservation of the introduced functionality at the interface. Our results demonstrate the versatility of N-heterocyclic carbenes as robust platforms for on-surface acid-base and ligand exchange reactions.

Triplet energy transfer from quantum dots increases Ln(iii) photoluminescence, enabling excitation at visible wavelengths.

Europium(iii) complexes are promising for bioimaging because of their long-lived, narrow emission. The photoluminescence (PL) from europium(iii) complexes is usually low. Thus, the effective utilization of low-energy light >400 nm and enhancement of PL are long-standing goals. Here, we show for the first time that 1-naphthoic acid triplet transmitter ligands bound to CdS quantum dots (QDs) and europium(iii) complexes create an energy transfer cascade that takes advantage of the strong QD absorption. This is confirmed by transient absorption spectroscopy, which shows hole mediated triplet energy transfer from QDs to 1-NCA, followed by triplet transfer from 1-NCA to europium(iii) complexes with an efficiency of 65.9 ± 7.7%. Smaller CdS QDs with a larger driving force lead to higher triplet transfer efficiency, with Eu(iii) PL intensity enhanced up to 21.4 times, the highest value ever reported. This hybrid QD system introduces an innovative approach to enhance the brightness of europium complexes.

Tailoring Interfaces for Enhanced Methanol Production from Photoelectrochemical CO2 Reduction.

Efficient and stable photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 into highly reduced liquid fuels remains a formidable challenge, which requires an innovative semiconductor/catalyst interface to tackle. In this study, we introduce a strategy involving the fabrication of a silicon micropillar array structure coated with a superhydrophobic fluorinated carbon layer for the photoelectrochemical conversion of CO2 into methanol. The pillars increase the electrode surface area, improve catalyst loading and adhesion without compromising light absorption, and help confine gaseous intermediates near the catalyst surface. The superhydrophobic coating passivates parasitic side reactions and further enhances local accumulation of reaction intermediates. Upon one-electron reduction of the molecular catalyst, the semiconductor-catalyst interface changes from adaptive to buried junctions, providing a sufficient thermodynamic driving force for CO2 reduction. These structures together create a unique microenvironment for effective reduction of CO2 to methanol, leading to a remarkable Faradaic efficiency reaching 20% together with a partial current density of 3.4 mA cm-2, surpassing the previous record based on planar silicon photoelectrodes by a notable factor of 17. This work demonstrates a new pathway for enhancing photoelectrocatalytic CO2 reduction through meticulous interface and microenvironment tailoring and sets a benchmark for both Faradaic efficiency and current density in solar liquid fuel production.

Electro-inductive Effect Dominates Vibrational Frequency Shifts of Conjugated Probes on Gold Electrodes.

Interfacial electric fields play a critical role in electrocatalysis and are often characterized by using vibrational probes attached to an electrode surface. Understanding the physical principles dictating the impact of the applied electrode potential on the vibrational probe frequency is important. Herein, a comparative study is performed for two molecular probes attached to a gold electrode. Both probes contain a nitrile (CN) group, but 4-mercaptobenzonitrile (4-MBN) exhibits continuous conjugation from the electrode through the nitrile group, whereas this conjugation is interrupted for 2-(4-mercaptophenyl)acetonitrile (4-MPCN). Periodic density functional theory calculations predict that the CN vibrational frequency shift of the 4-MBN system is dominated by induction, which is a through-bond polarization effect, leading to a strong potential dependence that does not depend significantly on the orientation of the CN bond relative to the surface. In contrast, the CN vibrational frequency shift of the 4-MPCN system is influenced less by induction and more by through-space electric field effects, leading to a weaker potential dependence and a greater orientation dependence. These theoretical predictions were confirmed by surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy experiments. Balancing through-bond and through-space electrostatic effects may assist in the fundamental understanding and design of electrocatalytic systems.

Nanorod length-dependent photodriven H2 production in 1D CdS-Pt heterostructures.

Colloidal quantum confined semiconductor-metal heterostructures are promising candidates for solar energy conversion because their light absorbing semiconductor and catalytic components can be independently tuned and optimized. Although the light-to-hydrogen efficiencies of such systems have shown interesting dependences on the morphologies of the semiconductor and metal domains, the mechanisms of such dependences are poorly understood. Here, we use Pt tipped 0D CdS quantum dots (with ∼4.6 nm diameter) and 1D CdS nanorods (of ∼13.8, 27.8, 66.6, and 88.9 nm average rod lengths) as a model system to study the distance-dependence of charge separation and charge recombination times and their impacts on photo-driven H2 production. The H2 generation quantum efficiency increases from 0.2% ± 0.0% in quantum dots to 28.9% ± 0.4% at a rod length of 28 nm and shows negligible changes at longer rod lengths. The half-life time of electron transfer from CdS to Pt increases monotonically with rod length, from 0.7 ± 0.1 in quantum dots to 170.2 ± 29.5 ps in the longest rods, corresponding to a slight decrease in electron transfer quantum efficiency from 92% to 81%. The amplitude-weighted average lifetime of charge recombination of the electron in Pt with the hole in CdS increases from 4.7 ± 0.4 µs in quantum dots to 149 ± 34 µs in 28 nm nanorods, and the lifetime does not increase further in longer rods, resembling the trend in the observed H2 generation quantum efficiency. Our result suggests that the competition of the charge recombination process with the hole removal by the sacrificial electron donor plays a dominant role in the observed nanorod length dependent overall light driven H2 generation quantum efficiency.

Direct Vibrational Stark Shift Probe of Quasi-Fermi Level Alignment in Metal Nanoparticle Catalyst-Based Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor Junction Photoelectrodes.

Photoelectrodes consisting of metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) junctions are a promising candidate architecture for water splitting and for the CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR). The photovoltage is an essential indicator of the driving force that a photoelectrode can provide for surface catalytic reactions. However, for MIS photoelectrodes that contain metal nanoparticles, direct photovoltage measurements at the metal sites under operational conditions remain challenging. Herein, we report a new in situ spectroscopic approach to probe the quasi-Fermi level of metal catalyst sites in heterogeneous MIS photoelectrodes via surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Using a CO2RR photocathode, nanoporous p-type Si modified with Ag nanoparticles, as a prototype, we demonstrate a selective probe of the photovoltage of ∼0.59 V generated at the Si/SiOx/Ag junctions. Because it can directly probe the photovoltage of MIS heterogeneous junctions, this vibrational Stark probing approach paves the way for the thermodynamic evaluation of MIS photoelectrodes with varied architectural designs.

Epitaxial growth of highly symmetrical branched noble metal-semiconductor heterostructures with efficient plasmon-induced hot-electron transfer.

Epitaxial growth is one of the most commonly used strategies to precisely tailor heterostructures with well-defined compositions, morphologies, crystal phases, and interfaces for various applications. However, as epitaxial growth requires a small interfacial lattice mismatch between the components, it remains a challenge for the epitaxial synthesis of heterostructures constructed by materials with large lattice mismatch and/or different chemical bonding, especially the noble metal-semiconductor heterostructures. Here, we develop a noble metal-seeded epitaxial growth strategy to prepare highly symmetrical noble metal-semiconductor branched heterostructures with desired spatial configurations, i.e., twenty CdS (or CdSe) nanorods epitaxially grown on twenty exposed (111) facets of Ag icosahedral nanocrystal, albeit a large lattice mismatch (more than 40%). Importantly, a high quantum yield (QY) of plasmon-induced hot-electron transferred from Ag to CdS was observed in epitaxial Ag-CdS icosapods (18.1%). This work demonstrates that epitaxial growth can be achieved in heterostructures composed of materials with large lattice mismatches. The constructed epitaxial noble metal-semiconductor interfaces could be an ideal platform for investigating the role of interfaces in various physicochemical processes.

Synergizing Electron and Heat Flows in Photocatalyst for Direct Conversion of Captured CO2.

We report a ternary hybrid photocatalyst architecture with tailored interfaces that boost the utilization of solar energy for photochemical CO2 reduction by synergizing electron and heat flows in the photocatalyst. The photocatalyst comprises cobalt phthalocyanine (CoPc) molecules assembled on multiwalled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) that are decorated with nearly monodispersed cadmium sulfide quantum dots (CdS QDs). The CdS QDs absorb visible light and generate electron-hole pairs. The CNTs rapidly transfer the photogenerated electrons from CdS to CoPc. The CoPc molecules then selectively reduce CO2 to CO. The interfacial dynamics and catalytic behavior are clearly revealed by time-resolved and in situ vibrational spectroscopies. In addition to serving as electron highways, the black body property of the CNT component can create local photothermal heating to activate amine-captured CO2 , namely carbamates, for direct photochemical conversion without additional energy input.

Electron Trapping Prolongs the Lifetime of Charge-Separated States in 2D Perovskite Nanoplatelet-Hole Acceptor Complexes.

Two-dimensional (2D) lead halide perovskite nanoplatelets (NPLs) are promising materials for blue light emission because of the strong quantum confinement in the 2D morphology. However, the identity of carrier traps and the trap influence on charge transfer in these NPLs remain unclear. Herein, transient absorption studies revealed two types of electron traps in 3 monolayer lead bromide perovskite NPLs with trapping lifetime of 9.0 ± 0.6 and 516 ± 59 ps, respectively, while no hole traps were observed. Systematic charge transfer experiments show that electron traps have negligible influence on ultrafast electron transfer or hole transfer but extend the half-lifetime of the charge-separated state from 2.1 ± 0.1 to 68 ± 3 ns after hole transfer, which is explained by the reduced electron-hole overlap. This work contributes to the understanding of the fundamental carrier dynamics in 2D perovskite NPLs and offers guidelines for boosting their performance in optoelectronics and photocatalysis.

Direct In Situ Measurement of Quantum Efficiencies of Charge Separation and Proton Reduction at TiO2-Protected GaP Photocathodes.

Photoelectrochemical solar fuel generation at the semiconductor/liquid interface consists of multiple elementary steps, including charge separation, recombination, and catalytic reactions. While the overall incident light-to-current conversion efficiency (IPCE) can be readily measured, identifying the microscopic efficiency loss processes remains difficult. Here, we report simultaneous in situ transient photocurrent and transient reflectance spectroscopy (TRS) measurements of titanium dioxide-protected gallium phosphide photocathodes for water reduction in photoelectrochemical cells. Transient reflectance spectroscopy enables the direct probe of the separated charge carriers responsible for water reduction to follow their kinetics. Comparison with transient photocurrent measurement allows the direct probe of the initial charge separation quantum efficiency (ϕCS) and provides support for a transient photocurrent model that divides IPCE into the product of quantum efficiencies of light absorption (ϕabs), charge separation (ϕCS), and photoreduction (ϕred), i.e., IPCE = ϕabsϕCSϕred. Our study shows that there are two general key loss pathways: recombination within the bulk GaP that reduces ϕCS and interfacial recombination at the junction that decreases ϕred. Although both loss pathways can be reduced at a more negative applied bias, for GaP/TiO2, the initial charge separation loss is the key efficiency limiting factor. Our combined transient reflectance and photocurrent study provides a time-resolved view of microscopic steps involved in the overall light-to-current conversion process and provides detailed insights into the main loss pathways of the photoelectrochemical system.

Amine Hole Scavengers Facilitate Both Electron and Hole Transfer in a Nanocrystal/Molecular Hybrid Photocatalyst.

A well-known catalyst, fac-Re(4,4'-R2-bpy)(CO)3Cl (bpy = bipyridine; R = COOH) (ReC0A), has been widely studied for CO2 reduction; however, its photocatalytic performance is limited due to its narrow absorption range. Quantum dots (QDs) are efficient light harvesters that offer several advantages, including size tunability and broad absorption in the solar spectrum. Therefore, photoinduced CO2 reduction over a broad range of the solar spectrum could be enabled by ReC0A catalysts heterogenized on QDs. Here, we investigate interfacial electron transfer from Cd3P2 QDs to ReC0A complexes covalently bound on the QD surface, induced by photoexcitation of the QD. We explore the effect of triethylamine, a sacrificial hole scavenger incorporated to replenish the QD with electrons. Through combined transient absorption spectroscopic and computational studies, we demonstrate that electron transfer from Cd3P2 to ReC0A can be enhanced by a factor of ∼4 upon addition of triethylamine. We hypothesize that the rate enhancement is a result of triethylamine possibly altering the energetics of the Cd3P2-ReC0A system by interacting with the quantum dot surface, deprotonation of the quantum dot, and preferential solvation, resulting in a shift of the conduction band edge to more negative potentials. We also observe the rate enhancement in other QD-electron acceptor systems. Our findings provide mechanistic insights into hole scavenger-quantum dot interactions and how they may influence photoinduced interfacial electron transfer processes.

Homoleptic Al(III) Photosensitizers for Durable CO2 Photoreduction.

Exploiting noble-metal-free systems for high-performance photocatalytic CO2 reduction still presents a key challenge, partially due to the long-standing difficulties in developing potent and durable earth-abundant photosensitizers. Therefore, based on the very cheap aluminum metal, we have deployed a systematic series of homoleptic Al(III) photosensitizers featuring 2-pyridylpyrrolide ligands for CO2 photoreduction. The combined studies of steady-state and time-resolved spectroscopy as well as quantum chemical calculations demonstrate that in anerobic CH3CN solutions at room temperature, visible-light excitation of the Al(III) photosensitizers leads to an efficient population of singlet excited states with nanosecond-scale lifetimes and notable emission quantum yields (10-40%). The results of transient absorption spectroscopy further identified the presence of emissive singlet and unexpectedly nonemissive triplet excited states. More importantly, the introduction of methyl groups at the pyrrolide rings can greatly improve the visible-light absorption, reducing power, and durability of the Al(III) photosensitizers. With triethanolamine, BIH (1,3-dimethyl-2-phenyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-benzo[d]imidazole), and an Fe(II)-quaterpyridine catalyst, the most methylated Al(III) photosensitizer achieves an apparent quantum efficiency of 2.8% at 450 nm for selective (>99%) CO2-to-CO conversion, which is nearly 28 times that of the unmethylated one (0.1%) under identical conditions. The optimal system realizes a maximum turnover number of 10250 and higher robustness than the systems with Ru(II) and Cu(I) benchmark photosensitizers. Quenching experiments using fluorescence spectroscopy elucidate that the photoinduced electron transfer in the Al(III)-sensitized system follows a reductive quenching pathway. The remarkable tunability and cost efficiency of these Al(III) photosensitizers should allow them as promising components in noble-metal-free systems for solar fuel conversion.

Unconventional interfacial water structure of highly concentrated aqueous electrolytes at negative electrode polarizations.

Water-in-salt electrolytes are an appealing option for future electrochemical energy storage devices due to their safety and low toxicity. However, the physicochemical interactions occurring at the interface between the electrode and the water-in-salt electrolyte are not yet fully understood. Here, via in situ Raman spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulations, we investigate the electrical double-layer structure occurring at the interface between a water-in-salt electrolyte and an Au(111) electrode. We demonstrate that most interfacial water molecules are bound with lithium ions and have zero, one, or two hydrogen bonds to feature three hydroxyl stretching bands. Moreover, the accumulation of lithium ions on the electrode surface at large negative polarizations reduces the interfacial field to induce an unusual "hydrogen-up" structure of interfacial water and blue shift of the hydroxyl stretching frequencies. These physicochemical behaviours are quantitatively different from aqueous electrolyte solutions with lower concentrations. This atomistic understanding of the double-layer structure provides key insights for designing future aqueous electrolytes for electrochemical energy storage devices.

Sub-Nanometer Mapping of the Interfacial Electric Field Profile Using a Vibrational Stark Shift Ruler.

The characterization of electrical double layers is important since the interfacial electric field and electrolyte environment directly affect the reaction mechanisms and catalytic rates of electrochemical processes. In this work, we introduce a spectroscopic method based on a Stark shift ruler that enables mapping the electric field strength across the electric double layer of electrode/electrolyte interfaces. We use the tungsten-pentacarbonyl(1,4-phenelenediisocyanide) complex attached to the gold surface as a molecular ruler. The carbonyl (CO) and isocyanide (NC) groups of the self-assembled monolayer (SAM) provide multiple vibrational reporters situated at different distances from the electrode. Measurements of Stark shifts under operando electrochemical conditions and direct comparisons to density functional theory (DFT) simulations reveal distance-dependent electric field strength from the electrode surface. This electric field profile can be described by the Gouy-Chapman-Stern model with Stern layer thickness of ∼4.5 Å, indicating substantial solvent and electrolyte penetration within the SAM. Significant electro-induction effect is observed on the W center that is ∼1.2 nm away from the surface despite rapid decay of the electric field (∼90%) within 1 nm. The applied methodology and reported findings should be particularly valuable for the characterization of a wide range of microenvironments surrounding molecular electrocatalysts at electrode interfaces and the positioning of electrocatalysts at specific distances from the electrode surface for optimal functionality.

Tailoring Charge Separation at Meticulously Engineered Conjugated Polymer/Perovskite Quantum Dot Interface for Photocatalyzing Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization.

In stark contrast to conventional organic ligand-capped counterparts, the ability to create stable metal halide perovskite nanocrystals strongly tethered with conjugated polymers (CPs) represents an important endeavor toward tailoring charge carrier dynamics at their interface that critically underpins applications of this unique class of all semiconducting, organic-inorganic nanomaterials for optoelectronics. This, however, has yet to be largely explored. Herein, we report, for the first time, the unraveling of efficient charge separation at judiciously designed CP/perovskite quantum dot (QD) interface for photoinduced atom transfer radical polymerization (p-ATRP). Such scrutiny is rendered by in situ crafting an array of monodisperse, highly stable, CP-ligated perovskite QDs with precisely controlled dimensions of each constituent via capitalizing on unimolecular, amphiphilic starlike block copolymers as nanoreactors. The intimate and permanent surface tethering of CPs imparts remarkable thermal, photo, and polar solvent stabilities of CP-ligated perovskite QDs. More importantly, they manifest efficient interfacial charge separation with a profound dependence on the length of ligated CPs and the size of perovskite QDs. The outstanding structural stabilities and charge separation characteristic enable CP-ligated perovskite QDs as robust photocatalysts for p-ATRP of a wide selection of monomers with stable and controllable reaction kinetics, also depending crucially on the length of CPs and the size of perovskite QDs. In principle, an exciting variety of CP-ligated, uniform perovskite QDs with virtually unlimited material choice of both markedly improved stabilities and tunable electronic band alignments can be readily accessed by exploiting the amphiphilic starlike block copolymer nanoreactor strategy for use in photodetectors, sensors, and LEDs, among other areas.

Bright State Sensitized Triplet Energy Transfer from Quantum Dot to Molecular Acceptor Revealed by Temperature Dependent Energy Transfer Dynamics.

Quantum dot (QD) sensitized molecular triplet excited state generation has been a promising alternative for traditional triplet state harvesting schemes. However, the correlation between QD bright/dark states and QD sensitized triplet energy transfer (TET) has been unclear. Herein, we studied the bright/dark states contribution to TET with CdSe/CdS core/shell QD-oligothiophene as the model system. Equilibrium between QD bright and dark states was tuned by changing temperature, and TET dynamics were monitored with transient absorption spectroscopy. Analysis of acceptor triplet excited state growth kinetics yields rates of TET from bright and dark states as 0.492 ± 0.011 ns-1 and 0.0271 ± 0.0014 ns-1 at 5 K, suggesting significant contribution of bright states to TET. The result was rationalized by bright state wave function components with the same electron/hole spin projections leading to nonzero TET probability. The study provides new insights into QD sensitized TET mechanisms and inspiration for future TET efficiency optimization through QD exciton engineering.

Structurally Precise Two-Transition-Metal Water Oxidation Catalysts: Quantifying Adjacent 3d Metals by Synchrotron X-Radiation Anomalous Dispersion Scattering.

Mixed 3d metal oxides are some of the most promising water oxidation catalysts (WOCs), but it is very difficult to know the locations and percent occupancies of different 3d metals in these heterogeneous catalysts. Without such information, it is hard to quantify catalysis, stability, and other properties of the WOC as a function of the catalyst active site structure. This study combines the site selective synthesis of a homogeneous WOC with two adjacent 3d metals, [Co2Ni2(PW9O34)2]10- (Co2Ni2P2) as a tractable molecular model for CoNi oxide, with the use of multiwavelength synchrotron X-radiation anomalous dispersion scattering (synchrotron XRAS) that quantifies both the location and percent occupancy of Co (∼97% outer-central-belt positions only) and Ni (∼97% inner-central-belt positions only) in Co2Ni2P2. This mixed-3d-metal complex catalyzes water oxidation an order of magnitude faster than its isostructural analogue, [Co4(PW9O34)2]10- (Co4P2). Four independent and complementary lines of evidence confirm that Co2Ni2P2 and Co4P2 are the principal WOCs and that Co2+(aq) is not. Density functional theory (DFT) studies revealed that Co4P2 and Co2Ni2P2 have similar frontier orbitals, while stopped-flow kinetic studies and DFT calculations indicate that water oxidation by both complexes follows analogous multistep mechanisms, including likely Co-OOH formation, with the energetics of most steps being lower for Co2Ni2P2 than for Co4P2. Synchrotron XRAS should be generally applicable to active-site-structure-reactivity studies of multi-metal heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts.