Understanding "Hybrid Immunity": Comparison and Predictors of Humoral Immune Responses to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection (SARS-CoV-2) and Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Vaccines.

BACKGROUND: Comparison of humoral responses in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccinees, those with SARS-CoV-2 infection, or combinations of vaccine/ infection ("hybrid immunity") may clarify predictors of vaccine immunogenicity. METHODS: We studied 2660 US Military Health System beneficiaries with a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection-alone (n = 705), vaccination-alone (n = 932), vaccine-after-infection (n = 869), and vaccine-breakthrough-infection (n = 154). Peak anti-spike-immunoglobulin G (IgG) responses through 183 days were compared, with adjustment for vaccine product, demography, and comorbidities. We excluded those with evidence of clinical or subclinical SARS-CoV-2 reinfection from all groups. RESULTS: Multivariable regression results indicated that vaccine-after-infection anti-spike-IgG responses were higher than infection-alone (P < .01), regardless of prior infection severity. An increased time between infection and vaccination was associated with greater post-vaccination IgG response (P < .01). Vaccination-alone elicited a greater IgG response but more rapid waning of IgG (P < .01) compared with infection-alone (P < .01). BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 vaccine-receipt was associated with greater IgG responses compared with JNJ-78436735 vaccine-receipt (P < .01), regardless of infection history. Those with vaccine-after-infection or vaccine-breakthrough-infection had a more durable anti-spike-IgG response compared to infection-alone (P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: Vaccine-receipt elicited higher anti-spike-IgG responses than infection-alone, although IgG levels waned faster in those vaccinated (compared to infection-alone). Vaccine-after-infection elicits a greater humoral response compared with vaccine or infection alone; and the timing, but not disease severity, of prior infection predicted these post-vaccination IgG responses. While differences between groups were small in magnitude, these results offer insights into vaccine immunogenicity variations that may help inform vaccination timing strategies.

An Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Reactogenicity: Variation by Type, Dose, and History, Severity, and Recency of Prior SARS-CoV-2 Infection.

Background: There is limited information on the functional consequences of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine side effects. To support patient counseling and public health messaging, we describe the risk and correlates of COVID-19 vaccine side effects sufficient to prevent work or usual activities and/or lead to medical care ("severe" side effects). Methods: The EPICC study is a longitudinal cohort study of Military Healthcare System beneficiaries including active duty service members, dependents, and retirees. We studied 2789 adults who were vaccinated between December 2020 and December 2021. Results: Severe side effects were most common with the Ad26.COV2.S (Janssen/Johnson and Johnson) vaccine, followed by mRNA-1273 (Moderna) then BNT162b2 (Pfizer/BioNTech). Severe side effects were more common after the second than first dose (11% vs 4%; P < .001). First (but not second) dose side effects were more common in those with vs without prior severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection (9% vs 2%; adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 5.84; 95% CI, 3.8-9.1), particularly if the prior illness was severe or critical (13% vs 2%; aOR, 10.57; 95% CI, 5.5-20.1) or resulted in inpatient care (17% vs 2%; aOR, 19.3; 95% CI, 5.1-72.5). Side effects were more common in women than men but not otherwise related to demographic factors. Conclusions: Vaccine side effects sufficient to prevent usual activities were more common after the second than first dose and varied by vaccine type. First dose side effects were more likely in those with a history of COVID-19-particularly if that prior illness was severe or associated with inpatient care. These findings may assist clinicians and patients by providing a real-world evaluation of the likelihood of experiencing impactful postvaccine symptoms.

Maternal Anti-Dengue IgG Fucosylation Predicts Susceptibility to Dengue Disease in Infants.

Infant mortality from dengue disease is a devastating global health burden that could be minimized with the ability to identify susceptibility for severe disease prior to infection. Although most primary infant dengue infections are asymptomatic, maternally derived anti-dengue immunoglobulin G (IgGs) present during infection can trigger progression to severe disease through antibody-dependent enhancement mechanisms. Importantly, specific characteristics of maternal IgGs that herald progression to severe infant dengue are unknown. Here, we define ≥10% afucosylation of maternal anti-dengue IgGs as a risk factor for susceptibility of infants to symptomatic dengue infections. Mechanistic experiments show that afucosylation of anti-dengue IgGs promotes FcγRIIIa signaling during infection, in turn enhancing dengue virus replication in FcγRIIIa+ monocytes. These studies identify a post-translational modification of anti-dengue IgGs that correlates with risk for symptomatic infant dengue infections and define a mechanism by which afucosylated antibodies and FcγRIIIa enhance dengue infections.

A Model to Explain How the Bacille Calmette Guérin (BCG) Vaccine Drives Interleukin-12 Production in Neonates.

The Bacille Calmette Guérin (BCG) vaccine is the only routine vaccination at birth that effectively induces neonatal T-helper 1 (Th1)-polarized immune responses. The primary cytokine that drives CD4+ T-cell Th1 differentiation is interleukin (IL)-12 p70, a heterodimeric cytokine composed of the IL-12 p35 and IL-12 p40 subunits. We therefore examined the mechanisms involved in BCG vaccine stimulation of IL-12 p35 and p40 production from human umbilical cord (neonatal) cells. We found that BCG bacilli did not upregulate IL-12 p35 mRNA production, but upregulated IL-12 p40 mRNA production in a Toll-like receptor (TLR)2-dependent manner, in human neonatal monocyte-derived dendritic cells (mdDCs). The combination of TLR2 signaling, Type I interferon (IFN), and Type II IFN induced maximal levels of IL-12 p35 and p40 mRNA production in human neonatal mdDCs. The cell-free supernatants of reconstituted BCG vaccine vials contained extracellular mycobacterial (BCG) DNA which could induce IFN-α (Type I IFN) production in human neonatal plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). BCG bacilli also stimulated human neonatal CD16lo natural killer (NK) cells to produce IFN-γ (Type II IFN) in a TLR2-dependent manner. We have therefore proposed a model where BCG vaccine could stimulate the combination of neonatal conventional DCs (cDCs), pDCs, and CD16lo NK cells to produce optimal neonatal IL-12 p35 and p40 (IL-12 p70) production and subsequent CD4+ T-cell Th1 polarization. An adjuvant that emulates the mechanism by which the BCG vaccine stimulates neonatal IL-12 p35 and p40 production could improve vaccine strategies at birth for protection against intracellular pathogens and toxins.

The Pattern of Adipose Tissue Accumulation during Early Infancy Provides an Environment for the Development of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever.

BACKGROUND: Dengue is the most prevalent arthropod-borne viral illness in humans with half of the world's population at risk. During early infancy, severe dengue can develop after a primary dengue virus infection. There has been a clinical observation that severe dengue during the first year of life is seen only in chubby infants. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We examined the associations between the development of severe dengue and adipose tissue accumulation patterns during the first year of life in a prospective observational clinical study of infants and dengue virus infections. We found that adipose tissue contains two potential targets for dengue virus infection and production- adipocytes and adipose tissue macrophages. During the first year of life, total body adiposity and visceral adipose tissue stores were at their highest levels in early infancy. Early infancy was also characterized by a relative decrease in alternatively activated (anti-inflammatory) macrophages, and a relative increase in circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The data has been used to propose a model where the adipose tissue accumulation pattern and pro-inflammatory environment during early infancy provide the conditions for the potential development of severe dengue in immune-susceptible infants.

Influenza virus infections in the tropics during the first year of life.

Pediatric influenza virus infections in the tropics, particularly during infancy, are not well described. We identified influenza virus infections among infants with non-dengue acute undifferentiated febrile illnesses in San Pablo, Laguna, Philippines, as part of an ongoing clinical study of dengue virus infections during infancy. We found that 31% of infants with non-dengue acute undifferentiated febrile illnesses in San Pablo, Laguna, Philippines, had influenza virus infections. The majority were influenza A virus infections and outpatient cases. The infant ages were 11.1 [9.8-13.0] months (median [95% confidence interval]), and the cases clustered between June and December. Influenza episodes are a common cause of non-dengue acute undifferentiated febrile illnesses in the tropics during the first year of life.

Anti-dengue virus envelope protein domain III IgG ELISA among infants with primary dengue virus infections.

Dengue is the most prevalent arthropod-borne viral illness in humans. The current gold standard serologic test for dengue virus (DENV) infection is a neutralizing antibody assay. We examined a DENV recombinant (r)E protein domain III IgG ELISA among infants with primary DENV infections. Infants experience a primary DENV infection in the presence of maternally derived anti-DENV IgG. The estimated DENV rE protein domain III IgG levels to the infecting serotype at the time of infant primary symptomatic DENV2 and DENV3 infections correlated with the 50% plaque reduction neutralization reciprocal antibody titers (PRNT50). Anti-DENVs 1-4 rE protein domain III IgG levels all correlated with each other, and the estimated rE protein domain III IgG level to the infecting serotype at the time of infection inversely correlated with dengue disease severity. The anti-DENV rE protein domain III IgG ELISA may be a useful and potentially high-throughput alternative to traditional DENV neutralizing antibody assays.

Circulating levels of soluble MICB in infants with symptomatic primary dengue virus infections.

Dengue is the most prevalent arthropod-borne viral illness in humans. A MHC class I polypeptide-related sequence B (MICB) single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) was previously associated with symptomatic dengue compared to non-dengue causes of acute febrile illnesses in infants. We measured circulating levels of soluble (s)MICB in the sera of infants with symptomatic primary dengue virus infections. We found that serum levels of sMICB increased between pre-infection and acute illness among infants with symptomatic primary dengue virus infections. The likelihood of being hospitalized with an acute primary DENV infection during infancy also tended to be higher with increasing acute illness sMICB levels. The elevation of sMICB during acute primary DENV infections in infants likely represents an immune evasion strategy and contributes to the severity of the acute illness.

Neonatal BCG vaccination is associated with enhanced T-helper 1 immune responses to heterologous infant vaccines.

Neonatal Bacille Calmette Guérin (BCG) vaccination has been reported to have beneficial effects beyond preventing infantile tuberculous meningitis and miliary disease. We hypothesized that BCG vaccine given at birth would enhance T-helper 1 (Th1) immune responses to the first vaccines given later in infancy. We conducted a nested case-control study of neonatal BCG vaccination and its heterologous Th1 immune effects in 2-3 months old infants. BCG vaccination at birth was associated with an increased frequency of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) producing spot-forming cells (SFC) to tetanus toxoid 2-3 months later. The frequency of IFN-γ producing SFC to polioviruses 1-3 also trended higher among infants who received BCG vaccination at birth. The frequency of IFN-γ+/tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)+CD45RO+CD4+ T-cells upon stimulation with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)/Ionomycin was higher in 2-3 months old infants who received BCG vaccination at birth compared to those who did not. The circulating frequency of forkhead box P3 (FoxP3)+ CD45RO+ regulatory CD4+ T-cells also trended lower in these infants. Neonatal BCG vaccination is associated with heterologous Th1 immune effects 2-3 months later.

Low adiposity during early infancy is associated with a low risk for developing dengue hemorrhagic fever: a preliminary model.

Dengue virus (DENV) infections range from asymptomatic or mild illness to a severe and potentially life threatening disease, dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF). DHF occurs in primary DENV infections during early infancy. A prospective clinical study of DENV infections during infancy was conducted in San Pablo, Philippines. We found that infants who developed DHF with a primary DENV infection had higher WHO weight-for-age z scores before and at the time of infection compared to infants with primary DENV infections who did not develop DHF. In addition, TLR 7/8-stimulated tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) production from myeloid-derived cells was higher among well-nourished infants. Leptin augmented TLR 7/8-mediated TNF-α production in monocytes and decreased intracellular cAMP levels. Circulating leptin levels were elevated during early infancy and correlated with WHO weight-for-age z scores. Our data support a plausible hypothesis as to why well-nourished infants are at risk for developing DHF with their first DENV infection.

A shorter time interval between first and second dengue infections is associated with protection from clinical illness in a school-based cohort in Thailand.

BACKGROUND: Despite the strong association between secondary dengue virus (DENV) infections and dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF), the majority of secondary infections are subclinical or mild. The determinants of clinical severity remain unclear, though studies indicate a titer-dependent and time-dependent role of cross-protective anti-DENV antibodies. METHODS: Data from 2 sequential prospective cohort studies were analyzed for subclinical and symptomatic DENV infections in schoolchildren in Kamphaeng Phet, Thailand (1998-2002 and 2004-2007). Children experiencing ≥ 1 DENV infection were selected as the population for analysis (contributing 2169 person-years of follow-up). RESULTS: In total, 1696 children had ≥ 1 DENV infection detected during their enrollment; 268 experienced 2 or more infections. A shorter time interval between infections was associated with subclinical infection in children seronegative for DENV at enrollment, for whom a second-detected DENV infection is more likely to reflect a true second infection (average of 2.6 years between infections for DHF, 1.9 for DF, and 1.6 for subclinical infections). CONCLUSIONS: These findings support a pathogenesis model where cross-reactive antibodies wane from higher-titer, protective levels to lower-titer, detrimental levels. This is one of the first studies of human subjects to suggest a window of cross-protection following DENV infection since Sabin's challenge studies in the 1940s.

Herpes simplex virus bronchiolitis in a cannabis user.

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) lower respiratory tract infections in adults are uncommon. We present a case of HSV bronchiolitis and pneumonitis in an immunocompetent individual, likely linked to chronic habitual marijuana use and a herpetic orolabial ulcer. The case serves as a reminder to consider HSV as a potential unusual cause of lower respiratory tract infection/inflammation in individuals with chronic habitual marijuana use.

Toll-like receptor induced pro-interleukin-1ß and interleukin-6 in monocytes are lower in healthy infants compared to adults.

Infants have long been known to have higher infectious diseases morbidity and mortality and suboptimal vaccination responses compared to older children and adults. A variety of differences in innate and adaptive immune responses have been described between these two groups. We compared Toll-like receptor (TLR)-induced production of pro-interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α between 2-month-old infants and adults. TLR 7/8-induced production of pro-IL-1ß and IL-6 in monocytes was lower in 2-month-old infants compared to adults. There was no difference in TLR 7/8-induced production of TNF-α. Lower TLR-induced production of pro-IL-1ß and IL-6 in innate immune cells during early infancy likely contributes to suboptimal vaccine responses and infectious diseases susceptibility.

The role of MyD88 signaling in heterosubtypic influenza A virus infections.

A mouse model of heterosubtypic influenza A virus infections was used to determine the role of MyD88 signaling in CD4+ T-cell, CD8+ T-cell, and IgG immune responses. We found that MyD88 signaling played an important role in anti-influenza A virus heterosubtypic lung and spleen CD4+ T-cell, and spleen CD8+ T-cell, immune responses. MyD88 dependent signaling was important for T-helper 1 cytokine production in anti-influenza A virus lung and spleen heterosubtypic CD4+ T-cells, but not for their frequencies. Toll-like receptor 7 dependent signaling played a partial role in anti-influenza A virus lung heterosubtypic CD4+ T-helper 1 responses and anti-influenza A virus heterosubtypic IgG2c antibody levels. Our results have important implications for the generation of effective universal influenza vaccines.

Dengue virus type 2 modulates endothelial barrier function through CD73.

Dengue hemorrhagic fever is characterized by a unique vascular leakage syndrome. The mechanisms of endothelial barrier dysfunction in dengue hemorrhagic fever are not well understood. We examined the modulation of endothelial barrier function in dengue virus type 2 (DENV2) infections using primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells. We demonstrated that the increase in endothelial barrier function within 72 hours after DENV2 infection is mediated by type I interferon-dependent CD73 up-regulation. After 72 hours, DENV2 slowed the recovery of endothelial barrier function in response to tumor necrosis factor-α or vascular endothelial growth factor. This phenomenon was likely caused by type I interferon receptor signaling inhibition and lower CD73 levels in DENV2-infected endothelial cells. Our findings suggest that during DENV2 infection, endothelial barrier homeostasis is maintained by a balance between pro-inflammatory and pro-angiogenic cytokines, and type I interferon-dependent CD73 expression and activity.

Breastfeeding During Early Infancy is Associated with a Lower Incidence of Febrile Illnesses.

Human breast milk is known to contain immunoprotective, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory agents. In a prospective clinical study of dengue virus infections during infancy, we examined the correlation between breastfeeding and the development of febrile illnesses in an infant population. We found that breastfeeding status and the frequency of breastfeeding during early infancy was associated with a lower incidence of febrile illnesses.

Breastfeeding During Early Infancy is Associated with Higher Weight-Based World Health Organization Anthropometry.

The World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee on Physical Status: The Use and Interpretation of Anthropometry established reference anthropometric standards for the growth of healthy infants and children. As part of a prospective clinical study of dengue virus infections in infants, we measured the length and weight of healthy infants in San Pablo, Laguna, Philippines at two scheduled study visits. We examined the correlation between breastfeeding and WHO anthropometric z scores during early infancy in San Pablo, Laguna, Philippines. We found that breastfeeding status and the frequency of breastfeeding during early infancy positively correlated with weight-based WHO anthropometric z scores.

Fine scale spatiotemporal clustering of dengue virus transmission in children and Aedes aegypti in rural Thai villages.

BACKGROUND: Based on spatiotemporal clustering of human dengue virus (DENV) infections, transmission is thought to occur at fine spatiotemporal scales by horizontal transfer of virus between humans and mosquito vectors. To define the dimensions of local transmission and quantify the factors that support it, we examined relationships between infected humans and Aedes aegypti in Thai villages. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Geographic cluster investigations of 100-meter radius were conducted around DENV-positive and DENV-negative febrile "index" cases (positive and negative clusters, respectively) from a longitudinal cohort study in rural Thailand. Child contacts and Ae. aegypti from cluster houses were assessed for DENV infection. Spatiotemporal, demographic, and entomological parameters were evaluated. In positive clusters, the DENV infection rate among child contacts was 35.3% in index houses, 29.9% in houses within 20 meters, and decreased with distance from the index house to 6.2% in houses 80-100 meters away (p<0.001). Significantly more Ae. aegypti were DENV-infectious (i.e., DENV-positive in head/thorax) in positive clusters (23/1755; 1.3%) than negative clusters (1/1548; 0.1%). In positive clusters, 8.2% of mosquitoes were DENV-infectious in index houses, 4.2% in other houses with DENV-infected children, and 0.4% in houses without infected children (p<0.001). The DENV infection rate in contacts was 47.4% in houses with infectious mosquitoes, 28.7% in other houses in the same cluster, and 10.8% in positive clusters without infectious mosquitoes (p<0.001). Ae. aegypti pupae and adult females were more numerous only in houses containing infectious mosquitoes. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Human and mosquito infections are positively associated at the level of individual houses and neighboring residences. Certain houses with high transmission risk contribute disproportionately to DENV spread to neighboring houses. Small groups of houses with elevated transmission risk are consistent with over-dispersion of transmission (i.e., at a given point in time, people/mosquitoes from a small portion of houses are responsible for the majority of transmission).

Plasmacytoid dendritic cell interferon-α production to R-848 stimulation is decreased in male infants.

BACKGROUND: Sex differences in response to microbial infections, especially viral ones, may be associated with Toll-like receptor (TLR)-mediated responses by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). RESULTS: In this study, we identified sex differences in human infant pDC interferon-α production following challenge with the TLR7/8 agonist R-848. Male pDC responses were significantly lower than those of females during early infancy. This difference may be attributed to the androgen surge experienced by males during the early infancy period. Pretreatment of human pDCs with dihydrotestosterone produced a significant reduction in interferon-α production following R-848 challenge. CONCLUSIONS: Androgen-mediated regulation of pDC TLR7-driven innate immune responses may contribute to the observed sex differences in response to infections during early infancy.