Regulatory Affairs 101: Introduction to Expedited Regulatory Pathways.

Developing a novel drug, including discovery, nonclinical toxicology studies, initial clinical trials, and thorough pivotal studies, may take many years. Once an applicant has generated this comprehensive body of data, the final step prior to regulatory approval is Health Authority review of the marketing authorization application. Review by regulatory authorities to evaluate whether the data support a positive benefit/risk profile takes many months, adding additional time before patients may access therapy. In this paper, we discuss the various opportunities the US Food and Drug Administration and the European Medicines Agency offer to expedite the drug development and regulatory approval timelines for drugs intended to treat serious diseases and unmet medical needs.

Regulatory Affairs 101: Introduction to Investigational New Drug Applications and Clinical Trial Applications.

Testing novel drugs on fellow human beings is fraught with potential ethical concerns; however, developing drugs to treat the wide spectrum of human diseases and disorders is a moral imperative. How do we best navigate the balance between protecting the individual vs. the greater good? Global government regulatory bodies are accountable for ensuring that medical experiments on human subjects are appropriately justified and subject to close oversight. In this article, we focus on two major global health authorities, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicines Agency (EMA), and the path to legally treating humans with new investigational products.

Protein Delivery of an Artificial Transcription Factor Restores Widespread Ube3a Expression in an Angelman Syndrome Mouse Brain.

Angelman syndrome (AS) is a neurological genetic disorder caused by loss of expression of the maternal copy of UBE3A in the brain. Due to brain-specific genetic imprinting at this locus, the paternal UBE3A is silenced by a long antisense transcript. Inhibition of the antisense transcript could lead to unsilencing of paternal UBE3A, thus providing a therapeutic approach for AS. However, widespread delivery of gene regulators to the brain remains challenging. Here, we report an engineered zinc finger-based artificial transcription factor (ATF) that, when injected i.p. or s.c., crossed the blood-brain barrier and increased Ube3a expression in the brain of an adult mouse model of AS. The factor displayed widespread distribution throughout the brain. Immunohistochemistry of both the hippocampus and cerebellum revealed an increase in Ube3a upon treatment. An ATF containing an alternative DNA-binding domain did not activate Ube3a. We believe this to be the first report of an injectable engineered zinc finger protein that can cause widespread activation of an endogenous gene in the brain. These observations have important implications for the study and treatment of AS and other neurological disorders.

Miz-1 activates gene expression via a novel consensus DNA binding motif.

The transcription factor Miz-1 can either activate or repress gene expression in concert with binding partners including the Myc oncoprotein. The genomic binding of Miz-1 includes both core promoters and more distal sites, but the preferred DNA binding motif of Miz-1 has been unclear. We used a high-throughput in vitro technique, Bind-n-Seq, to identify two Miz-1 consensus DNA binding motif sequences--ATCGGTAATC and ATCGAT (Mizm1 and Mizm2)--bound by full-length Miz-1 and its zinc finger domain, respectively. We validated these sequences directly as high affinity Miz-1 binding motifs. Competition assays using mutant probes indicated that the binding affinity of Miz-1 for Mizm1 and Mizm2 is highly sequence-specific. Miz-1 strongly activates gene expression through the motifs in a Myc-independent manner. MEME-ChIP analysis of Miz-1 ChIP-seq data in two different cell types reveals a long motif with a central core sequence highly similar to the Mizm1 motif identified by Bind-n-Seq, validating the in vivo relevance of the findings. Miz-1 ChIP-seq peaks containing the long motif are predominantly located outside of proximal promoter regions, in contrast to peaks without the motif, which are highly concentrated within 1.5 kb of the nearest transcription start site. Overall, our results indicate that Miz-1 may be directed in vivo to the novel motif sequences we have identified, where it can recruit its specific binding partners to control gene expression and ultimately regulate cell fate.

The functional significance of common polymorphisms in zinc finger transcription factors.

Variants that alter the DNA-binding specificity of transcription factors could affect the specificity for and expression of potentially many target genes, as has been observed in several tumor-derived mutations. Here we examined if such trans expression quantitative trait loci (trans-eQTLs) could similarly result from common genetic variants. We chose to focus on the Cys2-His2 class of zinc finger transcription factors because they are the most abundant superfamily of transcription factors in human and have well-characterized DNA binding interactions. We identified 430 SNPs that cause missense substitutions in the DNA-contacting residues. Fewer common missense SNPs were found at DNA-contacting residues compared with non-DNA-contacting residues (P = 0.00006), consistent with possible functional selection against SNPs at DNA-contacting positions. Functional predictions based on zinc finger transcription factor (ZNF) DNA binding preferences also suggested that many common substitutions could potentially alter binding specificity. However, Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium analysis and examination of seven orthologs within the primate lineage failed to find evidence of trans-eQTLs associated with the DNA-contacting positions or evidence of a different selection pressure on a contemporary and evolutionary timescales. The overall conclusion was that common SNPs that alter the DNA-contacting residues of these factors are unlikely to produce strong trans-eQTLs, consistent with the observations by others that trans-eQTLs in humans tend to be few and weak. Some rare SNPs might alter specificity and remained rare due to purifying selection. The study also underscores the need for large-scale eQTLs mapping efforts that might provide experimental evidence for SNPs that alter the choice of transcription factor binding sites.

Quantitative analysis of TALE-DNA interactions suggests polarity effects.

Transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs) have revolutionized the field of genome engineering. We present here a systematic assessment of TALE DNA recognition, using quantitative electrophoretic mobility shift assays and reporter gene activation assays. Within TALE proteins, tandem 34-amino acid repeats recognize one base pair each and direct sequence-specific DNA binding through repeat variable di-residues (RVDs). We found that RVD choice can affect affinity by four orders of magnitude, with the relative RVD contribution in the order NG > HD ≈ NN >> NI > NK. The NN repeat preferred the base G over A, whereas the NK repeat bound G with 10(3)-fold lower affinity. We compared AvrBs3, a naturally occurring TALE that recognizes its target using some atypical RVD-base combinations, with a designed TALE that precisely matches 'standard' RVDs with the target bases. This comparison revealed unexpected differences in sensitivity to substitutions of the invariant 5'-T. Another surprising observation was that base mismatches at the 5' end of the target site had more disruptive effects on affinity than those at the 3' end, particularly in designed TALEs. These results provide evidence that TALE-DNA recognition exhibits a hitherto un-described polarity effect, in which the N-terminal repeats contribute more to affinity than C-terminal ones.

Highly active zinc-finger nucleases by extended modular assembly.

Zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs) are important tools for genome engineering. Despite intense interest by many academic groups, the lack of robust noncommercial methods has hindered their widespread use. The modular assembly (MA) of ZFNs from publicly available one-finger archives provides a rapid method to create proteins that can recognize a very broad spectrum of DNA sequences. However, three- and four-finger arrays often fail to produce active nucleases. Efforts to improve the specificity of the one-finger archives have not increased the success rate above 25%, suggesting that the MA method might be inherently inefficient due to its insensitivity to context-dependent effects. Here we present the first systematic study on the effect of array length on ZFN activity. ZFNs composed of six-finger MA arrays produced mutations at 15 of 21 (71%) targeted loci in human and mouse cells. A novel drop-out linker scheme was used to rapidly assess three- to six-finger combinations, demonstrating that shorter arrays could improve activity in some cases. Analysis of 268 array variants revealed that half of MA ZFNs of any array composition that exceed an ab initio B-score cutoff of 15 were active. These results suggest that, when used appropriately, MA ZFNs are able to target more DNA sequences with higher success rates than other current methods.

Seeing genetic and epigenetic information without DNA denaturation using sequence-enabled reassembly (SEER).

Virtually all methods for reading the sequence of bases in DNA rely on the ability to denature double-stranded DNA into single strands and then use Watson-Crick base-pairing rules to hybridize the strands with high specificity to another DNA primer or probe. However, nature frequently uses an alternative method, reading the sequence information directly from double-stranded DNA using sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins. Here we describe methods for the construction and testing of sequence probes based on engineered zinc finger DNA-binding proteins. Background is reduced using split-reporter molecules, and signal is amplified using enzymatic reporters. The resulting sequence-enabled reassembly (SEER) probes can be configured to detect DNA sequence (genetic) or DNA methylation (epigenetic) information.