Pharmacokinetics of vitamin dosage forms: A complete overview.

Vitamins are crucial for sustaining life because they play an essential role in numerous physiological processes. Vitamin deficiencies can lead to a wide range of severe health issues. In this context, there is a need to administer vitamin supplements through appropriate routes, such as the oral route, to ensure effective treatment. Therefore, understanding the pharmacokinetics of vitamins provides critical insights into absorption, distribution, and metabolism, all of which are essential for achieving the desired pharmacological response. In this review paper, we present information on vitamin deficiencies and emphasize the significance of understanding vitamin pharmacokinetics for improved clinical research. The pharmacokinetics of several vitamins face various challenges, and thus, this work briefly outlines the current issues and their potential solutions. We also discuss the feasibility of enhanced nanocarrier-based pharmaceutical formulations for delivering vitamins. Recent studies have shown a preference for nanoformulations, which can address major limitations such as stability, solubility, absorption, and toxicity. Ultimately, the pharmacokinetics of pharmaceutical dosage forms containing vitamins can impede the treatment of diseases and disorders related to vitamin deficiency.

Exploring film forming ability and improving its bioadhesiveness by thiolation of mucilaginous polysaccharides from Cassia uniflora seeds for drug delivery application.

The objectives of the present work were to explore film forming ability of mucilaginous polysaccharides obtained from Cassia uniflora seeds and improving its bioadhesive potential by thiolation for drug delivery and other applications. Thiolation was achieved by esterification reaction with thioglycolic acid. The modification was confirmed by performing and comparing its zeta potential, DSC, and spectrophotometric characterization by FTIR and NMR with unmodified mucilaginous polysaccharide. The modified mucilaginous polysaccharides FTIR spectra showed an additional absorption band at 2565 cm-1 and new shifts appeared in the 1H (δ 3.24 and at δ 3.44 ppm) and 13C NMR spectra's (21.56 ppm) confirming the esterification of mucilaginous polysaccharides. The prepared films of thiolated and unmodified mucilaginous polysaccharides were evaluated for various parameters like thickness, pH, and weight measurement, The film formulation had a thickness of 0.16 to 0.18 mm, pH in the range of 6.79 to 7.09 and weight uniformity 0.89 to 0.94 mg. The results reveal that the films based on thiolated material improved bioadhesive properties after thiolation. The SEM photographs revealed a smooth surface of film formulations. The diclofenac-loaded film of thiolated mucilaginous polysaccharide also showed >1.5-fold an increase in in-vitro drug release and exhibited non Fickian transport mechanism. These findings could increase the possible applications of chemically modified-thiolated mucilaginous polysaccharides of Cassia uniflora seeds in drug delivery.

Surface decorated quantum dots: Synthesis, properties and role in herbal therapy.

Quantum dots are the serendipitous outcome of materials research. It is the tiny carbonaceous nanoparticles with diameters ranging from 1 to 10 nm. This review is a brief discussion of the synthesis, properties, and biomedical applicability of quantum dots, especially in herbal therapy. As quantum dots are highly polar, they can be surface decorated with several kinds of polar functionalities, such as polymeric molecules, small functional molecules, and so on. The review also consists of the basic physical and optical properties of quantum dots and their excitation-dependent properties in the application section. We focus on therapeutics, where quantum dots are used as drugs or imaging probes. Nanoprobes for several diagnostics are quite new in the biomedical research domain. Quantum dot-based nanoprobes are in high demand due to their excellent fluorescence, non-bleaching nature, biocompatibility, anchoring feasibility for several analytes, and fast point-of-care sensibility. Lastly, we also included a discussion on quantum dot-based drug delivery as phytomedicine.

Verapamil hydrochloride loaded solid lipid nanoparticles: Preparation, optimization, characterisation, and assessment of cardioprotective effect in experimental model of myocardial infarcted rats.

Verapamil, a calcium channel blocker has poor bioavailability (20-30%) owing to extensive hepatic first-pass metabolism. Hence, the major objective of this research was to improve the oral bioavailability of Verapamil by Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (V-SLNs) using high shear homogenization and ultrasonication technology. A 32 factorial design was employed to statistically optimize the formulation to get minimum particle size with maximum entrapment efficiency. The average particle size was 218 nm and the entrapment efficiency was 80.32%. The V-SLN formulation exhibited biphasic behavior with a rapid release at first, then a steady release (75-80%) up to 24 h following the Korsmeyer Peppas release model. In the Isoproterenol induced myocardial necrosis model, oral administration of V-SLNs positively modulated almost all the studied hemodynamic parameters such as left ventricular end-diastolic pressure, cardiac injury markers, and tissue architecture. The cardioprotective effect was also confirmed with histopathological studies. When compared with free drugs, in-vivo pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated a rise in t1/2, AUC0-∞, and Cmax, indicating that bioavailability has improved. These encouraging results demonstrate the promising potential of developed V-SLNs for oral delivery and thereby improve the therapeutic outcome.

Ezetimibe-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carrier Based Formulation Ameliorates Hyperlipidaemia in an Experimental Model of High Fat Diet.

Ezetimibe (EZE) possesses low aqueous solubility and poor bioavailability and in addition, its extensive hepatic metabolism supports the notion of developing a novel carrier system for EZE. Ezetimibe was encapsulated into nanostructured lipid carriers (EZE-NLCs) via a high pressure homogenization technique (HPH). A three factor, two level (23) full factorial design was employed to study the effect of amount of poloxamer 188 (X1), pressure of HPH (X2) and number of HPH cycle (X3) on dependent variables. Particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), % entrapment efficiency (%EE), zeta potential, drug content and in-vitro drug release were evaluated. The optimized formulation displays pragmatic inferences associated with particle size of 134.5 nm; polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.244 ± 0.03; zeta potential of -28.1 ± 0.3 mV; % EE of 91.32 ± 1.8% and % CDR at 24-h of 97.11%. No interaction was observed after X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) studies. EZE-NLCs (6 mg/kg/day p.o.) were evaluated in the high fat diet fed rats induced hyperlipidemia in comparison with EZE (10 mg/kg/day p.o.). Triglyceride, HDL-c, LDL-c and cholesterol were significantly normalized and histopathological evaluation showed normal structure and architecture of the hepatocytes. The results demonstrated the superiority of EZE-NLCs in regard to bioavailability enhancement, dose reduction and dose-dependent side effects.

Isolation and structural characterization of mucilaginous polysaccharides obtained from the seeds of Cassia uniflora for industrial application.

In present study we explored powder of mucilaginous polysaccharides obtained from seeds of Cassia uniflora by determining its physicochemical, thermal, phytochemical, spectrophotometric and micrometric properties. The probable structure of isolated mucilaginous polysaccharide was determined using FTIR and 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy, which demonstrated that the Cassia uniflora seed mucilage is rich in the polysaccharides residues (ß-d-glucose) in the pyranose form. The mucilage was also explored for its gelling ability. X-ray diffraction patterns indicate the mucilage was amorphous in nature. This enables its application as a gelling agent in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics and food industries. It exhibits gelling ability at 1% w/w concentration. The mucilage exhibited swelling as well as pseudo plastic behaviour and good micrometric properties. Texture profile analysis of (3% w/w) prepared gel showed comparable properties of hardness, adhesiveness, gumminess and springiness to standard tragacanth. These features allow its application in food matrices and in pharmaceutical as a gelling and thickening agent.

Methotrexate-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carrier Gel Alleviates Imiquimod-Induced Psoriasis by Moderating Inflammation: Formulation, Optimization, Characterization, In-Vitro and In-Vivo Studies.

INTRODUCTION: Methotrexate exhibits poor cutaneous bioavailability and systemic side effects on topical administration, so there is an unmet need for a novel carrier and its optimized therapy. Methotrexate-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (MTXNLCs) were formulated and characterized to determine in vitro drug release and evaluate the role of MTXNLC gel in the topical treatment of psoriasis. METHODS: A solvent diffusion technique was employed to prepare MTXNLCs, which was optimized using 32 full factorial designs. The mean diameter and surface morphology of MTXNLCs was evaluated. The crystallinity of lyophilized MTXNLCs was characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD). MTXNLCs were integrated in 1% w/w Carbopol 934 P gel base, and in vitro skin deposition studies in human cadaver skin (HCS) were carried out. RESULTS: The optimized MTXNLCs were rod-shaped, with an average particle size of 253 ± 8.65 nm, a zeta potential of -26.4±0.86 mV, and EE of 54.00±1.49%. DSC and XRD data confirmed the formation of NLCs. Significantly higher deposition of MTX was found in HCS from MTXNLC gel (71.52 ±1.13%) as compared to MTX plain gel (38.48±0.96%). In vivo studies demonstrated significant improvement in therapeutic response and reduction in local side effects with MTXNLCs-loaded gel in the topical treatment of psoriasis. Anti-psoriatic efficacy of MTXNLCs 100 ug/cm2 compared with plain MTX gel was evaluated using imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis in BALB/c mice. The topical application of MTXNLCs to the mouse ear resulted in a significant reduction of psoriatic area and severity index, oxidative stress, inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α, IL-1ß, and IL-6 and IMQ-induced histopathological alterations in mouse ear samples. CONCLUSION: Developed formulation of MTXNLC gel demonstrated better anti-psoriatic activity and also displayed prolonged and sustained release effect, which shows that it can be a promising alternative to existing MTX formulation for the treatment of psoriasis.

Quercetin loaded nanoemulsion-based gel for rheumatoid arthritis: In vivo and in vitro studies.

Current research reports the development, optimization and evaluation of Quercetin (QCT) loaded nanoemulsion (NE)-based gel for the effective rheumatoid arthritis (RA) management. The formulation of QCT- NE was developed using spontaneous emulsification techniques using the Box- Behnken experimental design. The cytotoxicity study and effect on TNF-α production were evaluated respectively on HIG-82 and RAW 264.7 cells. The study showed that QCT- NE has no toxic effect on synoviocytes and a strong inhibitory effect on LPS-induced TNF-α production. QCT- NE gel has confirmed adequate rheological behavior with a good texture profile and improved drug permeation compared to free QCT gel. In addition, the gel was found to be non-irritating and showed the inhibition of paw edema in rats induced by CFA over 24 h contrary to free QCT gel. In conclusion, the formulation of QCT- NE gel is an efficient topical treatment strategy for rheumatoid arthritis.

Aripiprazole-Loaded Polymeric Micelles: Fabrication, Optimization and Evaluation using Response Surface Method.

AIMS AND BACKGROUND: The fundamental objective of current study was to encapsulate Aripiprazole (ARP) within Pluronic F127 micelles to improve its aqueous solubility. The recent patents on Aripiprazole (JP2013136621) and micelles (WO2016004369A1) facilitated selection of drug and polymer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The drug-laden micelles were fabricated using thin-film hydration technique. Optimization of the micellar formulation was done by using response surface method (RSM). The Pluronic F127 concentration of 150 mg and 75 rpm rotational speed of rotary evaporator were found to be optimized conditions for formulating micelles. RESULTS: The prepared batches were further characterized for PDI (polydispersity index), zeta potential, % DLC (% Drug loading content), % EE (% Entrapment Efficiency) and % drug release study; results of these parameters were found to be 0.228, -4.04 mV and 76.50 % and 18.56 % respectively. It was observed from the In vitro release study that 97.37 ± 1.81 % drug had released from micelles after 20h which were found about thrice as compared to that of pure drug. The optimized ARP micellar formulation was characterized using DSC (Differential Scanning Colorimetry), FT-IR (Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy), P-XRD (Powdered X-ray Diffraction Study) and TEM (Transmission Electronic Microscopy) studies. ARP-loaded micelles displayed a hydrodynamic diameter of 170.3 nm and a sphere-shaped morphology as determined by dynamic light scattering as well as TEM study. CONCLUSION: It is concluded that the prepared polymeric micellar system has an excellent potential to be used as a delivery carrier for Aripiprazole with increased solubility.

Nasal inserts containing ondansetron hydrochloride based on Chitosan-gellan gum polyelectrolyte complex: In vitro-in vivo studies.

The aim of this study was the production of ondansetron hydrochloride loaded lyophilized insert for nasal delivery. The nasal insert was prepared by the lyophilisation technique using Chitosan-gellan gum polyelectrolyte complex as the polymer matrix. The ondansetron loaded inserts were evaluated with respect to water uptake, bioadhesion, drug release kinetic study, ex vivo permeation study, and in vivo study. Lyophilised nasal inserts were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction study. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed the porous sponge like structure of inserts whereas release kinetic model revealed that drug release followed non-fickian case II diffusion. The nasal delivery showed improved bioavailability as compared to oral delivery. In conclusion, the ondansetron containing nasal inserts based on Chitosan-gellan gum complex with potential muco-adhesive potential is suitable for nasal delivery.

Development of grafted xyloglucan micelles for pulmonary delivery of curcumin: In vitro and in vivo studies.

A novel grafted copolymer consisting of l-lactide grafted xyloglucan was synthesized by polymerization reaction and characterized. The grafted copolymers were analyzed by Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) and (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance ((1)H NMR) was performed to confirm the grafting of l-poly lactic acid on xyloglucan. The grafted polymer forms micelles at the critical micelle concentration of 0.0150 wt% with the average particle size of 102 nm, as determined by particle size analyzer. The zeta potential of the curcumin loaded micelles was -18.2 mV, an acceptable drug loading efficiency of 68.9 ± 0.02% and the entrapment efficiency of 96.38 ± 0.2%. The release study for 5h showed a sustained release property. In vitro assessment demonstrates suitability of micelles as dry powder for inhalation. In vivo studies showed significant improvement in bioavailability on pulmonary administration of curcumin micelles as DPI formulation. The potential for pulmonary delivery curcumin loaded in micelles was evaluated. In conclusion, polymeric micelle based on a newly synthesized grafted xyloglucan could be suitable carrier for pulmonary delivery of curcumin.

Curcumin-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) for nasal administration: design, characterization, and in vivo study.

Cancer nanotherapeutics is beginning to overwhelm the global research and viewed to be the revolutionary treatment regime in the medical field. This investigation describes the development of a stable nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) system as a carrier for curcumin (CRM). The CRM-loaded NLC developed as a particle with the size of 146.8 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.18, an entrapment efficiency (EE) of 90.86%, and the zeta potential (ZP) of -21.4 mV. Besides, the increased cytotoxicity of CRM-NLC than that of CRM to astrocytoma-glioblastoma cell line (U373MG) in the cancer cell lines was observed. Results of biodistribution studies showed higher drug concentration in brain after intranasal administration of NLCs than PDS. The results of the study also suggest that CRM-NLC is a promising drug delivery system for brain cancer therapy.

Development and evaluation of gel-forming ocular films based on xyloglucan.

This study aims at application of xyloglucan, polysaccharide polymer as novel film forming agent for ocular delivery of ciprofloxacin. Ciprofloxacin ocular films were prepared by the solvent casting method using xuloglucan (2%). The prepared formulations were evaluated for thickness, percentage drug content, surface pH, swelling, mechanical strength and in vitro drug release. The films were found to be of uniform thickness (0.20 ± 0.07 µm). The % drug content in the films was found to be 95.45 ± 0.25%. The cumulative % drug releases from the formulation was 98.85 at the end of 24h. The formulations followed the anomalous transport release mechanism. Ocular irritancy study reveals safety of formulation to ocular mucosa. Thus, this study suggests that xyloglucan can act as a potential film forming polymer for ocular delivery of a ciprofloxacin.

Preparation, characterization and pulmonary pharmacokinetics of xyloglucan microspheres as dry powder inhalation.

The purpose of the present investigation was to prepare microspheres using xyloglucan as the polymer and to evaluate them for pulmonary delivery of Montelucast. Xyloglucan microspheres were prepared using spray-drying technique employing lactose monohydrate as carrier for dry powder inhalation. The formulation of microspheres was optimized using response surface methodology. Multiple response surface simultaneous optimizations using desirability approach were use to find optimal formulation. In vitro characterization of optimized microsphere formulation demonstrates its suitability as dry powder inhalation. It found to provide high and prolonged drug concentration within lungs after pulmonary administration in animal model.

Nanoemulsion-based intranasal drug delivery system of saquinavir mesylate for brain targeting.

The central nervous system (CNS) is an immunological privileged sanctuary site-providing reservoir for HIV-1 virus. Current anti-HIV drugs, although effective in reducing plasma viral levels, cannot eradicate the virus completely from the body. The low permeability of anti-HIV drugs across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) leads to insufficient delivery. Therefore, developing a novel approaches enhancing the CNS delivery of anti-HIV drugs are required for the treatment of neuro-AIDS. The aim of this study was to develop intranasal nanoemulsion (NE) for enhanced bioavailability and CNS targeting of saquinavir mesylate (SQVM). SQVM is a protease inhibitor which is a poorly soluble drug widely used as antiretroviral drug, with oral bioavailability is about 4%. The spontaneous emulsification method was used to prepare drug-loaded o/w nanoemulsion, which was characterized by droplet size, zeta potential, pH, drug content. Moreover, ex-vivo permeation studies were performed using sheep nasal mucosa. The optimized NE showed a significant increase in drug permeation rate compared to the plain drug suspension (PDS). Cilia toxicity study on sheep nasal mucosa showed no significant adverse effect of SQVM-loaded NE. Results of in vivo biodistribution studies show higher drug concentration in brain after intranasal administration of NE than intravenous delivered PDS. The higher percentage of drug targeting efficiency (% DTE) and nose-to-brain drug direct transport percentage (% DTP) for optimized NE indicated effective CNS targeting of SQVM via intranasal route. Gamma scintigraphy imaging of the rat brain conclusively demonstrated transport of drug in the CNS at larger extent after intranasal administration as NE.

Thiolated xyloglucan: Synthesis, characterization and evaluation as mucoadhesive in situ gelling agent.

The objective of present study was to enhance bioadhesive potential of xyloglucan by thiolation. Thiolation of xyloglucan was achieved with esterification with thioglycolic acid. Thiolated xyloglucan was characterized by NMR, DSC, and XRD analysis. Thiolated xyloglucan was determined to possess 4mmol of thiol groups/g of polymer by Ellman's method. Comparative evaluation of mucoadhesive property of ondansetron containing in situ gel system of xyloglucan and thiolated xyloglucan using sheep nasal mucosa revealed higher ex vivo bioadhesion time of thiolated xyloglucan as compared to xyloglucan. Improved mucoadhesive property of thiolated xyloglucan over the xyloglucan can be attributed to the formation of disulfide bond between mucus and thiolated xyloglucan. Ex vivo permeation study conducted using sheep nasal showed improved drug permeation in formulation based on thiolated xyloglucan. In conclusion, thiolation of xyloglucan improves its bioadhesion and drug permeation without affecting the resultant gel properties.

Thermally reversible xyloglucan gels as vehicles for nasal drug delivery.

The aim of this study was to investigate the potential application of thermosensitive gels formed by a xyloglucan polysaccharide derived from tamarind seed for nasal drug delivery. Xyloglucan that had been partially degraded by ß-galactosidase to eliminate 45% of galactose residues formed gels at concentrations of 2.5% w/w at gelation temperatures decreasing over the range 27-28°C. The in vitro release of ondansetron hydrochloride from the enzyme-degraded xyloglucan gels followed higuchi kinetics over a period of 5 h at 34°C by anomalous transport mechanism. The ex vivo permeation of ondansetron hydrochloride from the gels was sustained. Histological examination of nasal mucosa following a single administration of the gels showed no evidence of mucosal damage. Finally, the bioavailability study in rabbits revealed that the absolute bioavailability of ondansetron hydrochloride was significantly increased from 28.64% in the case of the oral drug solution to 52.79% in the case of the nasal in situ gel. The results of this study suggest the potential of the enzyme-degraded xyloglucan gels as vehicles for nasal delivery of drugs.

Nasal administration of ondansetron using a novel microspheres delivery system Part II: ex vivo and in vivo studies.

Gellan gum-based mucoadhesive microspheres of ondansetron hydrochloride for intranasal systemic delivery were prepared to avoid first pass effect, an alternative route of administration to injection and to enhance systemic bioavailability of ondansetron hydrochloride. The microspheres were prepared using spray method. The evaluation results of microspheres were reported in our previous study. The aim of this work was to study the in vivo performance of mucoadhesive microspheres in comparison with oral and intravenous preparations of ondansetron hydrochloride. The nasal delivery system gave increased AUC(0-240) and C(max) as compared to those of oral delivery. In conclusion, the gellan gum-based microsphere formulation of ondansetron hydrochloride with mucoadhesive properties with increased permeation rate is promising for prolonging nasal residence time and thereby nasal absorption.

In situ gels of Metoclopramide Hydrochloride for intranasal delivery: in vitro evaluation and in vivo pharmacokinetic study in rabbits.

Intranasal (IN) administration is a promising approach for rapid-onset delivery of medications and to circumvent their first-pass elimination when taken orally. Metoclopramide Hydrochloride (MET HCl) is a potent antiemetic, effective even for preventing emesis induced by cancer chemotherapy. The feasibility of developing an efficacious intranasal formulation of metoclopramide has been undertaken in this study. Formulations were modulated so as to have gelation at physiological ion content after intranasal administration. Gelation was determined by physical appearance. The mucoadhesive force in terms of detachment stress, determined using sheep nasal mucosal membrane, increased with increasing concentration of carbopol. The results of in vitro drug permeation studies across sheep nasal mucosa indicate that effective permeation could be significantly increased by using in situ gelling formulation with carbopol concentration 0.15% or greater. Histological examination did not detect any damage during in vitro permeation studies. Finally, the bioavailability study in rabbits revealed that the absolute bioavailability of MET HCl was significantly increased from 40.67% in the case of the oral drug solution to 54.61% in the case of the nasal in situ gel. This study points to the potential of mucoadhesive nasal in situ gel in terms of ease of administration, accuracy of dosing, prolonged nasal residence and improved drug bioavailability.

Formulation and evaluation of nasal mucoadhesive microspheres of sumatriptan succinate.

The purpose of present research work was to develop mucoadhesive microspheres for nasal delivery with the aim to avoid hepatic first-pass metabolism, improve therapeutic efficacy and enhance residence time. For the treatment of migraine, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) K4M and K15M based microspheres containing sumatriptan succinate (SS) were prepared by spray-drying technique. The microspheres were evaluated with respect to the yield, particle size, incorporation efficiency, swelling property, in vitro mucoadhesion, in vitro drug release, histological study and stability. Microspheres were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction study. It was found that the particle size, swelling ability and incorporation efficiency of microspheres increases with increasing drug-to-polymer ratio. HPMC-based microspheres show adequate mucoadhesion and do not have any destructive effect on nasal mucosa. On the basis of these results, SS microspheres based on HPMC may be considered as a promising nasal delivery system.