Tauroursodeoxycholate prevents estradiol 17ß-d-glucuronide-induced cholestasis and endocytosis of canalicular transporters by switching off pro-cholestatic signaling pathways.

AIMS: Estradiol 17ß-d-glucuronide (E217G) induces cholestasis by triggering endocytosis and further intracellular retention of the canalicular transporters Bsep and Mrp2, in a cPKC- and PI3K-dependent manner, respectively. Pregnancy-induced cholestasis has been associated with E217G cholestatic effect, and is routinely treated with ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA). Since protective mechanisms of UDCA in E217G-induced cholestasis are still unknown, we ascertained here whether its main metabolite, tauroursodeoxycholate (TUDC), can prevent endocytosis of canalicular transporters by counteracting cPKC and PI3K/Akt activation. MAIN METHODS: Activation of cPKC and PI3K/Akt was evaluated in isolated rat hepatocytes by immunoblotting (assessment of membrane-bound and phosphorylated forms, respectively). Bsep/Mrp2 function was quantified in isolated rat hepatocyte couplets (IRHCs) by assessing the apical accumulation of their fluorescent substrates, CLF and GS-MF, respectively. We also studied, in isolated, perfused rat livers (IPRLs), the status of Bsep and Mrp2 transport function, assessed by the biliary excretion of TC and DNP-SG, respectively, and Bsep/Mrp2 localization by immunofluorescence. KEY FINDINGS: E217G activated both cPKC- and PI3K/Akt-dependent signaling, and pretreatment with TUDC significantly attenuated these activations. In IRHCs, TUDC prevented the E217G-induced decrease in apical accumulation of CLF and GS-MF, and inhibitors of protein phosphatases failed to counteract this protection. In IPRLs, E217G induced an acute decrease in bile flow and in the biliary excretion of TC and DNP-SG, and this was prevented by TUDC. Immunofluorescence studies revealed that TUDC prevented E217G-induced Bsep/Mrp2 endocytosis. SIGNIFICANCE: TUDC restores function and localization of Bsep/Mrp2 impaired by E217G, by preventing both cPKC and PI3K/Akt activation in a protein-phosphatase-independent manner.

Spironolactone ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced cholestasis in rats by improving Mrp2 function: Role of transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms.

AIMS: Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induces inflammatory cholestasis by impairing expression, localization, and function of carriers involved in bile formation, e.g. bile salt export pump (Bsep) and multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (Mrp2). A specific therapy against this disease is still lacking. Therefore, we evaluated the anticholestatic effects of spironolactone (SL), a PXR ligand that regulates bile salt homeostasis, up-regulates Mrp2, and bears anti-inflammatory properties. MAIN METHODS: Male Wistar rats were divided into four groups: Control, SL (83.3 mg/kg/day of SL, i.p., for 3 days), LPS (2.5 mg/kg/day, i.p., at 8 am of the last 2 days, and 1.5 mg/kg/day at 8 pm of the last day), and SL + LPS. Biliary and plasma parameters and the expression, function, and localization of Mrp2 and Bsep were evaluated. KEY FINDINGS: SL partially prevented LPS-induced drop of basal bile flow by normalizing the bile salt-independent fraction of bile flow (BSIBF), via improvement of glutathione output. This was due to a recovery in Mrp2 transport function, the major canalicular glutathione transporter, estimated by monitoring the output of its exogenously administered substrate dibromosulfophthalein. SL counteracted the LPS-induced downregulation of Mrp2, but not that of Bsep, at both mRNA and protein levels. LPS induced endocytic internalization of both transporters, visualized by immunofluorescence followed by confocal microscopy, and SL partially prevented this relocalization. SL did not prevent the increase in IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α plasma levels. SIGNIFICANCE: SL prevents the impairment in Mrp2 expression and localization, and the resulting recovery of Mrp2 function normalizes the BSIBF by improving glutathione excretion.

Anticholestatic mechanisms of ursodeoxycholic acid in lipopolysaccharide-induced cholestasis.

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Gram (-) bacteria induces inflammatory cholestasis by impairing the expression/localization of transporters involved in bile formation (e.g., Bsep, Mrp2). Therapeutic options for this disease are lacking. Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) is the first choice therapy in cholestasis, but its anticholestatic efficacy in this hepatopathy remains to be evaluated. To asses it, male Wistar rats received UDCA for 5 days (25 mg/Kg/day, i.p.) with or without LPS, administered at 8 a.m. of the last 2 days (4 mg/Kg/day, i.p.), plus half of this dose at 8 p.m. of the last day. Then, plasma alkaline phosphatase (ALP), bile flow, basal and taurocholate-stimulated bile acid output, total glutathione output, and total/plasma membrane liver protein expression of Bsep and Mrp2 by confocal microscopy were assessed. mRNA levels of both transporters were assessed by Real-Time PCR. Plasma pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and TNF-α) were measured by ELISA. Our results showed that UDCA attenuated LPS-induced ALP plasma release and the impairment in the excretion of the Bsep substrate, taurocholate. This was associated with an improved Bsep expression at both mRNA and protein levels, and by an improved localization of Bsep in plasma membrane. UDCA failed to reduce the increase in plasma pro-inflammatory cytokines induced by LPS and Mrp2 expression/function. In conclusion, UDCA protects the hepatocyte against the damaging effect of bile acids accumulated by the LPS-induced secretory failure. This involved an enhanced synthesis of Bsep and an improved membrane stability of the newly synthesized transporters.

Activation of insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor participates downstream of GPR30 in estradiol-17ß-D-glucuronide-induced cholestasis in rats.

Estradiol-17ß-D-glucuronide (E17G), through the activation of different signaling proteins, induces acute endocytic internalization of canalicular transporters in rat, including multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (Abcc2) and bile salt export pump (Abcb11), generating cholestasis. Insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R) is a membrane-bound tyrosine kinase receptor that can potentially interact with proteins activated by E17G. The aim of this study was to analyze the potential role of IGF-1R in the effects of E17G in isolated perfused rat liver (IPRL) and isolated rat hepatocyte couplets. In vitro, IGF-1R inhibition by tyrphostin AG1024 (TYR, 100 nM), or its knock-down with siRNA, strongly prevented E17G-induced impairment of Abcc2 and Abcb11 function and localization. The protection by TYR was not additive to that produced by wortmannin (PI3K inhibitor, 100 nM), and both protections share the same dependency on microtubule integrity, suggesting that IGF-1R shared the signaling pathway of PI3K/Akt. Further analysis of the activation of Akt and IGF-1R induced by E17G indicated a sequence of activation GPR30-IGF-1R-PI3K/Akt. In IPRL, an intraportal injection of E17G triggered endocytosis of Abcc2 and Abcb11, and this was accompanied by a sustained decrease in the bile flow and the biliary excretion of Abcc2 and Abcb11 substrates. TYR did not prevent the initial decay, but it greatly accelerated the recovery to normality of these parameters and the reinsertion of transporters into the canalicular membrane. In conclusion, the activation of IGF-1R is a key factor in the alteration of canalicular transporter function and localization induced by E17G, and its activation follows that of GPR30 and precedes that of PI3K/Akt.

Calcineurin regulates progressive motility activation of Rhinella (Bufo) arenarum sperm through dephosphorylation of PKC substrates.

Animals with external fertilization, as amphibians, store their sperm in a quiescent state in the testis. When spermatozoa are released into natural fertilization media, the hypotonic shock triggers activation of sperm motility. Rhinella (Bufo) arenarum sperm are immotile in artificial seminal plasma (ASP, resembling testicular plasma tonicity) but acquire in situ flagellar beating upon dilution. However, if components from the egg shelly coat are added to this medium, motility shifts to a progressive pattern. Recently, we have shown that the signal transduction pathway required for in situ motility activation involves a rise in intracellular cAMP through a transmembrane adenylyl cyclase and activation of PKA, mostly in the midpiece and in the sperm head. In this report, we demonstrate that activation of calcineurin (aka PP2B and PPP3) is required for the shift from in situ to progressive sperm motility. The effect of calcineurin is manifested by dephosphorylation of PKC substrates, and can be promoted by intracellular calcium rise by Ca(2+) ionophore. Both phosphorylated PKC substrates and calcineurin localized to the flagella, indicating a clear differentiation between compartmentalization of PKA and calcineurin pathways. Moreover, no crosstalk is observed between these signaling events, even though both pathways are required for progressive motility acquisition as discussed.