'Counselling is not just providing information': perceptions of caregivers and stakeholders on the design of nutrition and health counselling interventions for families with young children in rural Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Globally, a fifth of the children continue to face chronic undernutrition with a majority of them situated in the Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMIC). The rising numbers are attributed to aggravating factors like limited nutrition knowledge, poor feeding practices, seasonal food insecurity, and diseases. Interventions targeting behaviour change may reduce the devastating nutrition situation of children in the LMICs. OBJECTIVE: For the co-design of a Behaviour Change Communication (BCC) intervention for young children in rural Kenya, we aimed to identify the experiences, barriers, facilitators, and preferences of caregivers and stakeholders regarding nutrition and health counselling. DESIGN: We employed a qualitative study design and used a semi-structured interview guide. The in-depth interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analysed using content analysis, facilitated by the software NVivo. SETTING: Health and Demographic Surveillance System (HDSS) area in Siaya County, rural Kenya. PARTICIPANTS: We interviewed 30 caregivers of children between 6 and 23 months of age and 29 local stakeholders with experience in implementing nutrition projects in Kenya. RESULTS: Nutrition and health counselling (NHC) was usually conducted in hospital settings with groups of mothers. Barriers to counselling were long queues and delays, long distances and high travel costs, the inapplicability of the counselling content, lack of spousal support, and a high domestic workload. Facilitators included the trust of caregivers in Community Health Volunteers (CHVs) and counselling services offered free of charge. Preferences comprised (1) delivering of counselling by CHVs, (2) offering individual and group counselling, (3) targeting male and female caregivers. CONCLUSION: There is a disconnect between the caregivers' preferences and the services currently offered. Among these families, a successful BCC strategy that employs nutrition and health counselling should apply a community-based communication channel through trusted CHVs, addressing male and female caregivers, and comprising group and individual sessions.

Subgroups of adult-onset diabetes: a data-driven cluster analysis in a Ghanaian population.

Adult-onset diabetes mellitus (here: aDM) is not a uniform disease entity. In European populations, five diabetes subgroups have been identified by cluster analysis using simple clinical variables; these may elucidate diabetes aetiology and disease prognosis. We aimed at reproducing these subgroups among Ghanaians with aDM, and establishing their importance for diabetic complications in different health system contexts. We used data of 541 Ghanaians with aDM (age: 25-70 years; male sex: 44%) from the multi-center, cross-sectional Research on Obesity and Diabetes among African Migrants (RODAM) Study. Adult-onset DM was defined as fasting plasma glucose (FPG) ≥ 7.0 mmol/L, documented use of glucose-lowering medication or self-reported diabetes, and age of onset ≥ 18 years. We derived subgroups by cluster analysis using (i) a previously published set of variables: age at diabetes onset, HbA1c, body mass index, HOMA-beta, HOMA-IR, positivity of glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibodies (GAD65Ab), and (ii) Ghana-specific variables: age at onset, waist circumference, FPG, and fasting insulin. For each subgroup, we calculated the clinical, treatment-related and morphometric characteristics, and the proportions of objectively measured and self-reported diabetic complications. We reproduced the five subgroups: cluster 1 (obesity-related, 73%) and cluster 5 (insulin-resistant, 5%) with no dominant diabetic complication patterns; cluster 2 (age-related, 10%) characterized by the highest proportions of coronary artery disease (CAD, 18%) and stroke (13%); cluster 3 (autoimmune-related, 5%) showing the highest proportions of kidney dysfunction (40%) and peripheral artery disease (PAD, 14%); and cluster 4 (insulin-deficient, 7%) characterized by the highest proportion of retinopathy (14%). The second approach yielded four subgroups: obesity- and age-related (68%) characterized by the highest proportion of CAD (9%); body fat-related and insulin-resistant (18%) showing the highest proportions of PAD (6%) and stroke (5%); malnutrition-related (8%) exhibiting the lowest mean waist circumference and the highest proportion of retinopathy (20%); and ketosis-prone (6%) with the highest proportion of kidney dysfunction (30%) and urinary ketones (6%). With the same set of clinical variables, the previously published aDM subgroups can largely be reproduced by cluster analysis in this Ghanaian population. This method may generate in-depth understanding of the aetiology and prognosis of aDM, particularly when choosing variables that are clinically relevant for the target population.

Burden and determinants of anaemia among in-school young adolescents in Ethiopia, Sudan and Tanzania.

Anaemia among adolescents is a global health problem. However, evidence regarding its burden and risk factors, particularly for younger adolescents and in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), remains scarce. We aimed to assess the prevalence and potential determinants of anaemia among urban and semi-urban in-school young adolescents in Ethiopia, Sudan and Tanzania. We conducted a school-based survey among 3558 adolescents aged 10-14 years. A capillary blood sample was used to assess haemoglobin concentration. We assessed anaemia prevalence and examined associations between measures at the individual, household and school levels and anaemia using Poisson regression models adjusted for school and country-level clustering. The prevalence of anaemia was 32.0% overall, and 10.8% in Ethiopia, 25.0% in Sudan and 58.3% in Tanzania. Being a boy [adjusted risk ratio (RR): 1.11, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.08-1.15, p < 0.001], poorer diet quality (RR: 1.12, 95% CI: 1.02-1.23 p = 0.015), no school handwashing stations (RR: 1.26, 95% CI: 1.20-1.32, p < 0.001) and food insecurity (RR for moderate/severe anaemia: 1.06, 95% CI: 1.02-1.10, p = 0.002) were associated with increased anaemia risk. Younger age (RR: 0.91, 95% CI: 0.86-0.96, p < 0.001) and increasing height-for-age z-score (RR: 0.93, 95% CI: 0.91-0.95, p < 0.001) were associated with decreased anaemia risk. Associations were consistent for moderate or severe anaemia. There was no evidence of effect modification by sex. This study highlights anaemia as a public health problem and identified nutritional, dietary and hygiene measures as key risk factors of anaemia among young adolescents in SSA. School-based interventions addressing these factors could reduce the burden of anaemia in adolescence.

Prevalence of Obesity and Anemia Among Early Adolescents in Junior Secondary Schools: A Cross-Sectional Study in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

BACKGROUND: The school presents an ideal environment to positively impact the long-term health and nutrition outcomes of early adolescents, who are at risk of obesity and anemia. METHODS: In this cross-sectional survey, we described differences in weight and anemia by sociodemographic, diet and physical activity indicators among 1059 students aged 11 to 15 years from 22 junior secondary schools in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Weight was based on body mass index (BMI) z-scores according to the WHO reference and anemia status was defined by standardized hemoglobin (Hb) measure cut-offs. We calculated dietary diversity scores (DDS) from a 24-hour dietary recall and a global diet quality score (GDQS) from a 7-day dietary recall. RESULTS: The prevalence of obesity (5%) and anemia (50%) was relatively high among the students, which differed significantly between gender, household wealth and school grade, but not age groups. Eighteen percent of the female adolescents were overweight or obese and 22% were moderately anemic compared to 13% and 16% of the male adolescents. Dietary diversity was significantly different between weight categories, but not anemia status. For physical activity, those taking transportation to school were significantly more likely to be overweight or obese. In adjusted multivariable Poisson regression analyses, only the DDS was significantly associated with thinness and both thinness and anemia, while taking transportation to school was significantly associated with overweight among adolescents. CONCLUSION: We encourage the promotion of school-based interventions and provision of a curriculum on health and healthy eating in order to reduce obesity, anemia, and its comorbidities.

ALIMUS-We are feeding! Study protocol of a multi-center, cluster-randomized controlled trial on the effects of a home garden and nutrition counseling intervention to reduce child undernutrition in rural Burkina Faso and Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Climate change heavily affects child nutritional status in sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural and dietary diversification are promising tools to balance agricultural yield losses and nutrient deficits in crops. However, rigorous impact evaluation of such adaptation strategies is lacking. This project will determine the potential of an integrated home gardening and nutrition counseling program as one possible climate change adaptation strategy to improve child health in rural Burkina Faso and Kenya. METHODS: Based on careful co-design with stakeholders and beneficiaries, we conduct a multi-center, cluster-randomized controlled trial with 2 × 600 households in North-Western Burkina Faso and in South-Eastern Kenya. We recruit households with children at the age of complementary feed introduction (6-24 months) and with access to water sources. The intervention comprises the bio-diversification of horticultural home gardens and nutritional health counseling, using the 7 Essential Nutrition Action messages by the World Health Organization. After 12-months of follow-up, we will determine the intervention effect on the primary health outcome height-for-age z-score, using multi-level mixed models in an intention-to-treat approach. Secondary outcomes comprise other anthropometric indices, iron and zinc status, dietary behavior, malaria indicators, and household socioeconomic status. DISCUSSION: This project will establish the potential of a home gardening and nutrition counseling program to counteract climate change-related quantitative and qualitative agricultural losses, thereby improving the nutritional status among young children in rural sub-Saharan Africa. TRIAL REGISTRATION: German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS) DRKS00019076 . Registered on 27 July 2021.

Aetiological research on the health of migrants living in Germany: a systematic literature review.

BACKGROUND: Germany has become an important immigration country and health services need to adopt to meet the needs of an increasingly multicultural population. For public health planning, it is essential to understand the aetiology of health problems among migrant populations. The main objective was to systematically identify, evaluate and synthesise population-based studies that investigated exposure-outcome relationships among migrant groups in Germany. METHODS: In November 2019, we searched PubMed and LIVIVO, and updated this search in November 2020, to identify peer-reviewed publications that fulfilled our eligibility criteria: English or German language; study on disease aetiology among major migrant groups in Germany, according to the latest microcensus; publication date from inception to 01 November 2020 and observational or experimental study designs. For quality appraisal, we used the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme checklists. Outcomes under investigation were categorised according to the WHO major disease groups, and their associations with risk factors were synthesised as a heat map. RESULTS: Out of 2407 articles retrieved, we included 68 publications with a total number of 864 518 participants. These publications reported on cross-sectional data (n=56), cohort studies (n=11) and one intervention study. The population groups most frequently studied were from the Middle East (n=28), Turkey (n=24), sub-Saharan Africa (n=24), Eastern Europe (n=15) and the former Soviet Union (n=11). The outcomes under study were population group specific. There were consistent associations of demographic and socioeconomic factors with ill health among migrants in Germany. DISCUSSION: In this systematic review, we observed low risk of bias in two-thirds of the studies. There is an increasing body of evidence for aetiological research on migrants' health in Germany. Still, the directions of associations between a wide range of risk factors and major disease groups seem only partially understood. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42018085074.

The Food and Health Environment in Junior Secondary Schools in Urban Burkina Faso: A Cross-Sectional Study of Administrators, Food Vendors and Early Adolescents.

School enrolment rates have increased globally, making the school environment a unique setting to promote healthy nutrition and eating outcomes among early adolescents. In this cross-sectional study, we describe the food and health environment of junior secondary schools in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso, West Africa). We evaluated the food and health environment using three components: (1) the implementation of health-related policies or guidelines in the schools, (2) the provision of health, nutrition and water, sanitation & hygiene (WASH) services in the schools, and (3) the quality of the school food environment, including foods sold by vendors. We used stratified random sampling to recruit 22 junior secondary schools from the five Ouagadougou districts in 2020. Trained fieldworkers collected standardized questionnaire data from 19 school administrators, 18 food vendors, and 1059 in-school adolescents. We report that only 7 out of 19 school administrators were aware of existing health-related policies and guidelines at their school and only 3 schools had a school health and nutrition curriculum in place. The overall provision of health, nutrition and WASH services was low or inadequate. Likely because of the lack of school canteens, 69% of the students bought snacks and unhealthy foods from food vendors. There is a critical need to improve the food and health environment of junior secondary schools in urban Burkina Faso.

The Impact of Rainfall Variability on Diets and Undernutrition of Young Children in Rural Burkina Faso.

Background: Climate change and consequent increases in rainfall variability may have negative consequences for the food production of subsistence farmers in West Africa with adverse impacts on nutrition and health. We explored the pathway from rainfall through diet up to child undernutrition for rural Burkina Faso. Methods: The study used data of a dynamic cohort with 1,439 children aged 7-60 months from the Nouna Health and Demographic Surveillance Site (HDSS) for 2017 to 2019. We assessed data on diets, height, weight, household characteristics, and daily precipitation (from 1981 to 2019). Principal component analysis was used to identify distinct child dietary patterns (Dietary Pattern Scores, DPS). These were related to 15 rainfall indicators by area to obtain a precipitation variability score (PVS) through reduced rank regression (RRR). Associations between the PVS and anthropometric measures, height-for-age (HAZ), and weight-for-height (WHZ), were examined using multi-level regression analysis. Results: Stunting (HAZ < -2) and wasting (WHZ < -2) were seen in 24 and 6% of the children. Three main dietary patterns were identified (market-based, vegetable-based, and legume-based diets) and showed mixed evidence for associations with child undernutrition. The RRR-derived PVS explained 14% of the total variance in these DPS. The PVS was characterized by more consecutive dry days during the rainy season, higher cumulative rainfall in July and more extremely wet days. A 1-point increase in the PVS was associated with a reduction of 0.029 (95% CI: -0.06, 0.00, p < 0.05) in HAZ in the unadjusted, and an increase by 0.032 (95% CI: 0.01, 0.06, p < 0.05) in WHZ in the fully adjusted model. Conclusion: Rainfall variability was associated with dietary patterns in young children of a rural population of Burkina Faso. Increased rainfall variability was associated with an increase in chronic undernutrition, but not in acute undernutrition among young children.

"We Will Always Ask Ourselves the Question of How to Feed the Family": Subsistence Farmers' Perceptions on Adaptation to Climate Change in Burkina Faso.

In West Africa, climate change aggravates subsistence farmers' vulnerability to weather variability to sustain their agricultural and nutritional requirements. For successful adaptation policies, in-depth understanding of farmers' perceptions about climate change, agriculture, and adaptation strategies is essential. This qualitative study in rural Burkina Faso characterized farmers' perceptions and knowledge through in-depth interviews. The study enumerated the barriers, possibilities, strategies/practices, and support sources of farmers. There was awareness but limited understanding of climate change amongst farmers. Those unable to adapt, faced increased health difficulties, specifically regarding nutrition and mental health. Farmers could implement some dietary and agricultural adaptation strategies (reduce meal size, frequency and variety, preemptive purchase of cereals, multi-cropping, crop rotation, modified seeds) but were unable to implement others (soil rehabilitation, water management). Barriers to implementation comprised financial and time constraints, material and labor shortages, and inaccessible information. Farmers did not understand, trust or utilize meteorological services, but appreciated and relied on agricultural extension services. They reported that social and governmental support was sporadic and inconsistent. This study uncovers the following targets for climate change adaptation policies in rural Burkina Faso: promoting meteorological services, expanding agricultural extension services, increasing access to financial resources, and framing sustainable adaptation within national development goals.

Dietary habits associated with growth development of children aged < 5 years in the Nouna Health and Demographic Surveillance System, Burkina Faso.

BACKGROUND: Knowing which dietary habits are associated with child growth could lead to better long-term health outcomes and improve the design of food-based interventions. We aimed to identify dietary habits that are associated with the growth development of children aged < 5 years living in rural Burkina Faso. METHODS: This study used cross-sectional baseline data from 514 children (8-59 months) within the Nouna Health and Demographic Surveillance System (HDSS) in 2018. Household socio-demographics and child dietary habits, height and weight were assessed. We constructed scores for dietary diversity (DDS) and food variety (FVS), and extracted exploratory dietary pattern scores (DPS) using principal component analysis (PCA). Child growth was measured using height-for-age (HAZ) and weight-for-height z-scores (WHZ). We used multiple-adjusted linear regressions considering for socio-economic factors to quantify associations. RESULTS: In this study population (median 36 ± 14 months old), stunting (HAZ < - 2) was seen in 26% and wasting (WHZ < - 2) in 7%. The DDS (median 7 ± 2 food groups) was positively associated with WHZ, while the FVS (median 13 ± 8 food items) was inversely associated with HAZ. We identified 4 dietary patterns: leaves-based, beans and poultry-based, maize and fish-based, and millet and meat-based diets. Only the maize and fish-based diet showed a statistically significant and here positive trend for associations with WHZ. CONCLUSION: Growth development of children aged < 5 years continues to be a health problem in the Nouna HDSS. A higher dietary diversity and food variety and dietary patterns characterized by maize and fish and beans and poultry intake appear to be beneficial for growth of young children in this area.