Peptide-Functionalized Hydrogel Cubes for Active Tumor Cell Targeting.

Conjugation of bioactive targeting molecules to nano- or micrometer-sized drug carriers is a pivotal strategy to improve their therapeutic efficiency. Herein, we developed pH- and redox-sensitive hydrogel particles with a surface-conjugated cancer cell targeting ligand for specific tumor-targeting and controlled release of the anticancer drug doxorubicin. The poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA) hydrogel cubes of 700 nm and 2 µm with a hepsin-targeting (IPLVVPL) surface peptide are produced through multilayer polymer assembly on sacrificial cubical mesoporous cores. Direct peptide conjugation to the disulfide-stabilized hydrogels through a thiol-amine reaction does not compromise the structural integrity, hydrophilicity, stability in serum, or pH/redox sensitivity but does affect internalization by cancer cells. The cell uptake kinetics and the ultimate extent of internalization are controlled by the cell type and hydrogel size. The peptide modification significantly promotes the uptake of the 700 nm hydrogels by hepsin-positive MCF-7 cells due to ligand-receptor recognition but has a negligible effect on the uptake of 2 µm PMAA hydrogels. The selectivity of 700 nm IPLVVPL-PMAA hydrogel cubes to hepsin-overexpressing tumor cells is further confirmed by a 3-10-fold higher particle internalization by hepsin-positive MCF-7 and SK-OV-3 compared to that of hepsin-negative PC-3 cells. This work provides a facile method to fabricate enhanced tumor-targeting carriers of submicrometer size and improves the general understanding of particle design parameters for targeted drug delivery.

Development of a human live attenuated West Nile infectious DNA vaccine: Identification of a minimal mutation set conferring the attenuation level acceptable for a human vaccine.

For the development of a human West Nile (WN) infectious DNA (iDNA) vaccine, we created highly attenuated chimeric virus W1806 with the serological identity of highly virulent WN-NY99. Earlier, we attempted to utilize mutations found in the E protein of the SA14-14-2 vaccine to bring safety of W1806 to the level acceptable for human use (Yamshchikov et al., 2016). Here, we analyzed effects of the SA14-14-2 changes on growth properties and neurovirulence of W1806. A set including the E138K, K279M, K439R and G447D changes was identified as the perspective subset for satisfying the target safety profile without compromising immunogenicity of the vaccine candidate. The genetic stability of the attenuated phenotype was found to be unsatisfactory being dependent on a subset of attenuating changes incorporated in W1806. Elucidation of underlying mechanisms influencing selection of pathways for restoration of the envelope protein functionality will facilitate resolution of the emerged genetic stability issue.

Development of a human live attenuated West Nile infectious DNA vaccine: Suitability of attenuating mutations found in SA14-14-2 for WN vaccine design.

Direct attenuation of West Nile (WN) virus strain NY99 for the purpose of vaccine development is not feasible due to its high virulence and pathogenicity. Instead, we created highly attenuated chimeric virus W1806 with the serological identity of NY99. To further attenuate W1806, we investigated effects of mutations found in Japanese encephalitis virus vaccine SA14-14-2. WN viruses carrying all attenuating mutations lost infectivity in mammalian, but not in mosquito cells. No single reversion restored infectivity in mammalian cells, although increased infectivity in mosquito cells was observed. To identify a subset of mutations suitable for further attenuation of W1806, we analyzed effects of E138K and K279M changes on virulence, growth properties, and immunogenicity of derivatized W956, from which chimeric W1806 inherited its biological properties and attenuation profile. Despite strong dominant attenuating effect, introduction of only two mutations was not sufficient for attenuating W1806 to the safety level acceptable for human use.

Identification of novel small molecule activators of nuclear factor-κB with neuroprotective action via high-throughput screening.

Neuronal noncytokine-dependent p50/p65 nuclear factor-κB (the primary NF-κB complex in the brain) activation has been shown to exert neuroprotective actions. Thus neuronal activation of NF-κB could represent a viable neuroprotective target. We have developed a cell-based assay able to detect NF-κB expression enhancement, and through its use we have identified small molecules able to up-regulate NF-κB expression and hence trigger its activation in neurons. We have successfully screened approximately 300,000 compounds and identified 1,647 active compounds. Cluster analysis of the structures within the hit population yielded 14 enriched chemical scaffolds. One high-potency and chemically attractive representative of each of these 14 scaffolds and four singleton structures were selected for follow-up. The experiments described here highlighted that seven compounds caused noncanonical long-lasting NF-κB activation in primary astrocytes. Molecular NF-κB docking experiments indicate that compounds could be modulating NF-κB-induced NF-κB expression via enhancement of NF-κB binding to its own promoter. Prototype compounds increased p65 expression in neurons and caused its nuclear translocation without affecting the inhibitor of NF-κB (I-κB). One of the prototypical compounds caused a large reduction of glutamate-induced neuronal death. In conclusion, we have provided evidence that we can use small molecules to activate p65 NF-κB expression in neurons in a cytokine receptor-independent manner, which results in both long-lasting p65 NF-κB translocation/activation and decreased glutamate neurotoxicity.

Cks1 regulates cdk1 expression: a novel role during mitotic entry in breast cancer cells.

Cks1, a small protein whose expression is strongly associated with aggressive breast tumors, is a component of cyclin-cdk complexes, as well as the SCF(Skp2) ubiquitin ligase. In these studies, we explored its roles in estrogen receptor-positive breast tumor cells. When exposed to the antiestrogen ICI 182780, these cells accumulate in G(1) by reducing the expression of Cks1, and increasing the levels of p130/Rb2, a cdk2 inhibitor and SCF(Skp2) target. Heregulin beta1 or estradiol abrogate antiestrogen effects by increasing Cks1 expression, down-regulating p130/Rb2 and inducing S phase entry. Depletion of Cks1 in these cells by RNA interference concomitantly decreased Skp2 and up-regulated p130/Rb2 and another SCF(Skp2) target, p27(Kip1). Remarkably, however, Cks1-depleted cells not only exhibit slowed G(1) progression, but also accumulate in G(2)-M due to blocked mitotic entry. Notably, we show that cdk1 expression, which is crucial for M phase entry, is drastically diminished by Cks1 depletion, and that restoration of cdk1 reduces G(2)-M accumulation in Cks1-depleted cells. cdk1 reduction in Cks1-depleted cells is a consequence of a marked decrease in its mRNA and not due to alteration in its proteolytic turnover. Both heregulin beta1 and estradiol could neither restore cdk1 nor sustain cycling in Cks1-depleted cells, although classical estrogen receptor function remained unaltered. Cks1 depletion also decreased Skp2 in human mammary epithelial cells without altering cell cycle progression. Thus, the indispensability of Cks1 to the breast cancer cell cycle, versus its redundancy in normal cells, suggests that Cks1 abrogation could be an effective interventional strategy in breast cancer.

Prolonged extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 activation during fibroblast growth factor 1- or heregulin beta1-induced antiestrogen-resistant growth of breast cancer cells is resistant to mitogen-activated protein/extracellular regulated kinase kinase inhibitors.

Increased growth factor receptor signaling is implicated in antiestrogen-resistant breast tumors suggesting that abrogation of such signaling could restore or prolong sensitivity to antihormonal agents. Activation of the mitogen-activated protein/extracellular regulated kinase kinase (MEK)-extracellular regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 cascade is a common component of such pathways. We investigated the ability of the MEK activation inhibitor U0126 to block the increased growth of estrogen receptor-positive MCF-7 breast cancer cells caused by fibroblast growth factor 1 (FGF-1), heregulin beta1 (HRGbeta1), and epidermal growth factor (EGF) in the presence of the pure antiestrogen ICI 182780 (Faslodex; fulvestrant). We found that either FGF-1 or HRGbeta1 but not EGF substantially reduced the inhibitory effects of U0126 on growth and ERK1/2 activation, including the combined inhibitory effects of U0126 and ICI 182780. FGF-1 and HRGbeta1 also reduced the inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation by the MEK inhibitors PD98059 and PD184161. Interestingly, a transiently transfected dominant-negative MEK1 completely abrogated activation of a coexpressed green fluorescent protein-ERK2 reporter by all three of the factors. Despite a short-lived activation of Ras and Raf-1 by all three of the growth factors, both FGF-1 and HRGbeta1, unlike EGF, induced a prolonged activation of MEK and ERK1/2 in these cells. Thus, activation of FGF-1- and HRGbeta1-specific signaling causes MEK-dependent prolonged activation of ERK1/2, which is incompletely susceptible to known MEK inhibitors. We also demonstrate that the cytosolic phospholipase A2 inhibitor arachidonyl trifluoro methyl ketone and the pan PKC inhibitor bisindolymaleimide abrogated U0126-resistant phosphorylation of ERK1/2 induced by HRGbeta1 but not by FGF-1. Phosphorylation of ERK5 by all three of the factors was also resistant to U0126 suggesting that its activation is not sufficient to overturn growth inhibition due to diminished ERK1/2 activation. Therefore, therapy combining antiestrogens and MEK inhibitors may be ineffective in some antiestrogen-resistant estrogen receptor-positive breast cancers.

Homogeneity and long-term stability of tetracycline-regulated gene expression with low basal activity by using the rtTA2S-M2 transactivator and insulator-flanked reporter vectors.

Inducible expression of tetracycline responsive element (TRE)-regulated genes in nearly all cells in a stable clone has generally been problematic, especially in long-term culture. Heterogeneity of tet-inducible expression is generally attributed to the instability of the original tet-transactivators tTA and rtTA. These transactivators have cryptic splice sites, prokaryotic codons and full VP16 domains, all of which contribute to their instability. Moreover, they also require high concentrations of Doxycycline (Dox). The 5 amino acid substitutions in the rtTA variant rtTA2S-M2 confer exquisite sensitivity to Dox. Moreover, humanized codons, removal of cryptic splice sites and minimal VP16 domains in rtTA2S-M2 results in its being better tolerated within cells. However, the ability of this modified transactivator to maintain homogeneous inducibility in long-term culture has not been examined. We demonstrate that rtTA2S-M2 expressing clones exhibit functional transactivator activity for over 7 months in culture. Furthermore, rtTA2S-M2 expressing clones with chromosomally integrated copies of a TRE-green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter also exhibited homogeneous inducibility in long-term culture. Importantly, the inherent reduced toxicity and improved stability of rtTA2S-M2 obviates the need to continuously select for its message, once clones with functional transactivator are isolated. The use of rtTA2S-M2 did not, however, preclude clones with stably integrated TRE-reporter from exhibiting leakiness. However, inclusion of flanking double copies of a 'minimal core element' of the chicken beta-globin gene insulator, instead of the 1.4 kb region, in the TRE-reporter was sufficient to markedly reduce the frequency of clones with high basal expression. Inclusion of the insulator core also did not affect the maximal expression levels of the inducible gene, which typically equaled or exceeded that observed with the strong constitutive CMV promoter. Finally, with this system homogeneous inducibility was observed rapidly and with low doses of Dox.