The impact of surgery resident training on the duration of tibial plateau leveling osteotomy surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the impact of surgery resident training on surgery duration in tibial plateau leveling osteotomy (TPLO) and evaluate whether surgery duration differs with each year of residency training. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective medical record review. ANIMALS: A total of 256 client-owned dogs underwent TPLO. METHODS: Records of dogs that underwent TPLO between August 2019 and August 2022 were reviewed. The effects of the surgeon (faculty/resident) and the procedure (arthrotomy/arthroscopy) on TPLO surgery duration were examined with an analysis of variance, and geometric least squares means (GLSM) were compared. A linear mixed effects model (LMM) was fitted to quantify fixed and random effects. RESULTS: Four faculty surgeons performed 74 (29%) TPLOs, while 10 residents performed 182 (71%) TPLOs under the direct supervision of a faculty surgeon. All TPLOs were conducted with arthrotomy (109; 43%) or arthroscopy (147; 57%). Overall, residents (GLSM, 153 min) required 54% more surgery duration than faculty surgeons (GLSM, 99 min). Surgery duration among first-year residents (GLSM, 170 min) was 15% longer than second- (GLSM, 148 min) and third-year (GLSM, 147 min) residents, whereas the duration did not differ statistically between second- and third-year residents. Arthroscopy, meniscal tear treatment, surgery on the right stifle, and increasing patient weight were also associated with longer surgery duration. CONCLUSION: The duration of TPLO surgery significantly decreased after the first year of residency, but did not decrease afterward. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The results will aid with resource allocation, curricula planning, and cost management associated with resident training.

Kinematic performance of a novel temporomandibular joint replacement prosthesis under bite-force conditions in dogs and cats.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the kinematics and stability of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) of cats and dogs with and without a TMJ replacement (TMJR) prosthesis under simulated bite forces and mouth opening. ANIMALS: Sixteen cadaver skulls from domestic cats (n = 8) and medium- to large-breed dogs (n = 8). METHODS: Intact TMJs were tested. Following condylectomy and coronoidectomy, the skulls were fitted with a TMJR prosthesis unilaterally and retested. Prosthesis was similarly implanted in the contralateral TMJ in 4 cats and 4 dogs before retesting. Left and right bite motions were evaluated before bite contact to peak bite force (200 N in dogs, 63 N in cats). Mouth opening motion was recorded. Mandibular displacement under load was evaluated in 3 orthogonal planes. Maximal displacement was compared between TMJR groups and native TMJ. Prosthesis-bone motion of the temporal and mandibular components was evaluated during simulated bites and mouth opening. RESULTS: TMJR resulted in joint motion not demonstrably different from the native TMJ, with the ability to fully open and close the mouth and with minimal laterotrusion. The TMJR prosthesis demonstrated similar stability after unilateral and bilateral replacement during bite force and with an open mouth. Mean implant-bone motion during bite simulations for the temporal and mandibular TMJR components was ≤ 60 µm in cats and ≤ 30 µm in dogs. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A novel TMJR can be implanted and allows normal jaw motion. Joint stability is maintained after TMJR implantation in the TMJ of dogs and cats TMJ that is devoid of muscular support.

K-wire is more damaging than standard or acrylic drill bits when evaluating torsional properties of rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculi) femurs.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to compare drilling variables and torsional mechanical properties of rabbit femora after bicortical drilling with a 1.5-mm standard surgical drill bit, acrylic drill bit, and K-wire. SAMPLES: 24 pairs of rabbit femora. METHODS: After drilling under controlled axial displacement rate, each bone was biaxially loaded in compression followed by rapid external torsion to failure. Maximum axial thrust force, maximum drill torque, integral of force and displacement, change in temperature, maximum power spectral density of the torque signal, torque vibration, and torque and angle at the yield and failure points were collected. Pre- and postyield stiffness, yield and failure energies, and postyield energy were calculated. RESULTS: The work required to drill through the cis- and transcortices (integral of force and displacement) was greater for the K-wire, followed by the acrylic and then standard drill bits, respectively. The K-wire demonstrated higher maximum torque than the drill bits at the ciscortex, and the force of drilling was significantly greater. The vibration data was greater with the acrylic and standard drill bits than the K-wire. There was no difference in torsional strength between drilling types. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Mechanical differences exist between different drill bits and K-wire and demonstrate that the K-wire is overall more damaging than the surgical drill bit.

Respondents to an American College of Veterinary Surgeons diplomate survey support the promotion of diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives.

OBJECTIVE: To objectively measure the current demographic makeup of the American College of Veterinary Surgeons (ACVS) diplomates and to develop a survey tool to be used as a metric to measure future changes in the ACVS demographic profile. SAMPLE: 737 ACVS diplomates. METHODS: A 14-item electronic survey was sent to 2,199 ACVS diplomates between August 25 and September 9, 2021, via email. Survey items included demographic information as well as perceptions about the ACVS and diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI). Responses were quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed. RESULTS: The survey response rate was 34% (737/2,199). The median age category among respondents was 45 to 54. The median years in practice as a diplomate was 11 to 15. The majority of respondents identified as white/Caucasian and heterosexual, with male and female respondents being similarly represented. Most respondents identified English as their first language. Few considered themselves first-generation college graduates or identified as disabled. Many respondents considered DEI to be an important initiative to promote in the ACVS. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Findings suggested that the majority of ACVS respondents are supportive of DEI efforts. This study also serves as an objective analysis that can be reassessed in the future to determine the success of such initiatives.

Number of previous surgeries and antibiotic resistance decreases the success of local administration of antibiotic-impregnated poloxamer 407 hydrogel when managing orthopedic surgical site infections in dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To report the outcome of locally administered antibiotic-impregnated poloxamer 407 (P407) hydrogel in dogs diagnosed with orthopedic surgical site infections (SSIs) and to identify risk factors for treatment failure. ANIMALS: 34 client-owned dogs diagnosed with an orthopedic surgical site infection treated with local antibiotic-impregnated P407 hydrogel. PROCEDURES: Medical records were reviewed of dogs receiving antibiotic-impregnated P407 hydrogel for an active orthopedic SSI between March 2018 and December 2020. The rate of successful infection clearance was calculated. Risk factors for failed treatment were evaluated with statistical analyses. RESULTS: 34 dogs met the inclusion criteria. Vancomycin-impregnated P407 hydrogel (20 mg/mL) was implanted in all dogs. The rate of infection clearance was 77%. Each unit increase in the number of surgeries performed at a site before gel implantation decrease the chance of successful infection clearance by 25% (P = .005; unit OR, 0.25; 95% CI, 0.08 to 0.81). Presence of multidrug or methicillin resistance increased risk for treatment failure by 7.69 times (P = .042; OR, 0.13; 95% CI, 0.01 to 1.14). No adverse events related to gel administration were seen. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Treatment outcomes were negatively impacted by the presence of multidrug or methicillin resistance and by an increased number of surgeries before gel implantation. Local administration of antibiotic-impregnated P407 hydrogel had a high success rate with no adverse effects in this population. Local antibiotic gel administration may improve treatment outcomes in dogs with complicated SSI.

Adverse health events and recommended health research priorities in agility dogs as reported by dog owners.

Objective: To understand relative frequency of adverse health events, defined as injuries or infectious diseases, in dogs participating in agility and to determine health research priorities of agility dog owners. Procedures: An internet-based questionnaire distributed to agility dog owners included items related to experiences with infectious diseases and injuries in agility dogs, reasons for retirement of dogs from competition, and ranking of health research priorities. Frequencies of infectious diseases in US geographic regions were compared with Chi-square tests. Research priority rankings were determined as median and interquartile range (IQR) for each topic. Rank-based tests (Kruskal Wallis and Mann-Whitney) compared rankings between participants in different agility organizations, between veterinarian and non-veterinarian competitors, and between respondents who had competed in national championship events and other respondents. Results: There were 1,322 respondents who had competed in canine agility in the previous 6 months, with those respondents reporting a median time competing in the sport of 13 years (IQR = 8-20 years); 50% of respondents had competed in at least one national championship agility event in the preceding 5 years. Overall, 1,015 respondents (77%) indicated that one or more of their dogs had been injured and approximately one-third (n = 477, 36%) indicated that one or more dogs had likely acquired one or more infectious diseases as a result of agility activities. Specific types of infectious diseases acquired varied by geographic region in the US. Research priority rankings were similar regardless of preferred agility organization or respondent experience. The highest-ranking research topics were identification of risk factors for specific types of injuries, improvements in equipment and understanding of safe course design, and physical conditioning programs to prevent injury. Conclusions and clinical relevance: Agility competitors prioritize research in areas that advance understanding of injury prevention in their dogs. Research priorities are nearly uniform among competitors regardless of their preferred agility organization or level of experience, providing a strong rationale for agility organizations to collaborate in research initiatives that improve safety and well-being for dogs competing in the sport. There has been little published research focusing on the high-priority research areas identified by competitors.

Metal reactivity is present in dogs with tibial plateau leveling osteotomy and total hip replacement implants.

OBJECTIVE: Determine whether dogs with well-functioning orthopedic metal implants can develop metal reactivity. SAMPLE: Client-owned dogs that had tibial plateau leveling osteotomy (TPLO) or total hip replacement (THR) implants for 12 months or more and control dogs with no implants. PROCEDURES: Lymphocyte transformation testing was performed by exposing peripheral blood lymphocytes to nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), or a combination of these metals. Lymphocyte proliferation was assessed with flow cytometry. Lymphocyte stimulation indexes (SIs) were calculated. A SI > 2 was considered reactive. Median SIs of dogs in response to metal exposure were compared statistically. RESULTS: Samples from 10 dogs with TPLO, 12 dogs with THR, and 7 control dogs were analyzed. Six dogs out of 22 with metal implants had a reactive SI to 1 or more metals, while 2 of 7 control dogs had a SI > 2 when exposed to nickel only. When all metals were considered, no differences in metal reactivity were found between TPLO, THR, and control groups. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Metal reactivity is present in dogs and can be identified using lymphocyte transformation testing. Reactivity to Ni is present in dogs with and without metal implants. Reactivity to Co and Cr occurs in some dogs with metal implants.

FGF4L2 retrogene copy number is associated with intervertebral disc calcification and vertebral geometry in Nova Scotia Duck Tolling Retrievers.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effects of the chondrodystrophy-associated FGF4L2 retrogene on intervertebral disc (IVD) calcification and vertebral geometry. ANIMALS: 22 Nova Scotia Duck Tolling Retrievers (NSDTR) with no FGF4L2 retrogene (n = 7, wild-type dogs), 1 retrogene copy (8, heterozygous dogs), or 2 retrogene copies (7, homozygous dogs). PROCEDURES: Computed tomography (CT) scans of the vertebral column were analyzed using computer-aided design (CAD) software. IVD calcification, vertebral column length, and vertebral geometry of the third cervical (C3), 13th thoracic (T13), and first lumbar (L1) vertebrae were compared. RESULTS: IVD calcification was not found in wild-type dogs. IVD calcification was more frequent in homozygous dogs than heterozygous (P = .008) or wild-type dogs (P < .001) and in heterozygous dogs compared to wild-type dogs (P < .001). Four IVDs were subclinically herniated in 3 dogs (2 homozygous, 1 heterozygous). Calcified IVD had a greater volume and surface area in heterozygous dogs than homozygous dogs. C3 vertebral canal height-to-width ratio was greater in homozygous dogs than heterozygous dogs (P = .044) and wild-type dogs (P = .010). CLINICAL RELEVANCE: IVD calcification and vertebral geometry can be analyzed using CAD software. The presence of 1 or 2 FGF4L2 copies in the absence of the FGF4L1 retrogene has an additive effect on the number of calcified IVD and a minor effect on vertebral geometry in NSDTR dogs. Data support the use of FGF4L2 phenotyping to reduce clinical disease in segregating breeds and to monitor the introduction of wild-type alleles into fixed breed populations.

Stifle joint osteoarthritis in small-breed and medium-breed dogs is more severe after cranial cruciate ligament injury than medial patellar luxation.

This retrospective observational study aimed to characterize the severity and distribution of OA in the stifle joints of small and medium dogs with CCL injury and/or MPL. Radiographs of the stifle joints from 218 dogs from 10 small and medium breeds were included; 127 joints had CCL injury, 76 joints had MPL, and 73 joints had CCL injury and MPL. OA was graded at 33 sites within the joint. The mean ± SD OA score was 20.3 ± 9.9. For all joints, OA was more severe in heavier than lighter dogs (P = 0.003). Joints with MPL (14.9 ± 8.2) had lower OA scores than joints with CCL injury (22.2 ± 10.0, P = 0.003) or CCL injury and MPL (22.6 ± 9.4, P < 0.001). OA scores were higher in joints with MPL for older dogs (r = 0.408, P < 0.001) but did not change with age in joints with CCL injury. The pattern of OA did not differ among joints with CCL injury or MPL. The retrospective nature of the study limited findings to associations but did not allow conclusions regarding factors causing OA or enhancing its progression. We concluded that, in small- and medium-breed dogs, the patterns of stifle OA joint after CCL injury and MPL are similar. Radiographic OA after CCL injury is more severe than MPL. An increase in age leads to an increase in OA at the time of presentation at a referral hospital in stifle joints with MPL and without CCL injury.

Results of using multiplanar reconstructed CT images for assessing elbow joint osteoarthritis in dogs are consistent with results of radiographic assessment.

OBJECTIVE: To compare osteoarthritis scores assigned through radiographic evaluation of 18 anatomic regions in the elbow joint with scores assigned through evaluation of 3-D maximum intensity projection (MIP), 3-D surface rendering (TSR), and multiplanar reconstructed (MPR) CT images, and to evaluate intraobserver and interobserver agreement of radiographic and CT scoring. SAMPLE: Radiographic and CT images of 39 elbow joints in 20 dogs. PROCEDURES: Images were anonymized and graded independently by 5 observers. One observer graded 12 elbow joints 3 times. Intraobserver consistency and repeatability, interobserver agreement, consistency among methods, and bias between methods were calculated. RESULTS: The most severe changes were observed at the proximal aspect of the anconeal process, and the medial and cranial aspects of the medial coronoid process. Intraobserver consistency was moderate or better for 11/16 regions with MIP images, 11/16 regions with TSR images, 17/18 regions with MPR images, and 14/18 regions with radiographic images. Interobserver agreement was moderate or better for 5/16 regions with MIP images, 9/16 regions with TSR images, 12/18 regions with MPR images, and 6/18 regions with radiographic images. Mean scores from CT-based methods were higher than mean radiographic scores. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Assessments of osteoarthritis severity in the elbow joints of dogs obtained by examining radiographic images were generally consistent with assessments obtained by examining CT scans. MPR scores were more consistent and more comparable to radiographic scores than were MIP or TSR scores.

Physical Rehabilitation for the Management of Canine Hip Dysplasia: 2021 Update.

Hip dysplasia is one of the most common orthopedic conditions affecting dogs. Initially, laxity of the femur leads to subluxation, and subluxation can lead to an abnormal development or to progressive degeneration of the femoral head and dorsal acetabular rim. Osteoarthritis and its clinical impact progress over time. Changes to the femoral head and neck and the acetabulum and the impact on joint motion and pain vary widely among dogs. The rehabilitation of dogs with hip dysplasia includes rehabilitation therapy in dogs managed conservatively and the rehabilitation of dogs managed with surgery.

The Effects of FGF4 Retrogenes on Canine Morphology.

Two FGF4 retrogenes (FGF4L1 on chromosome 18 and FGF4L2 on chromosome 12) have been identified to cause dwarfism across many dog breeds. Some breeds are nearly homozygous for both retrogenes (e.g., Dachshunds) and others are homozygous for just one (e.g., Beagles and Scottish Terriers). Since most breeds do not segregate both of these retrogenes, it is challenging to evaluate their individual effects on long bone length and body size. We identified two dog breeds selected for hunting ability, the Alpine Dachsbracke and the Schweizer Niederlaufhund, that segregate both of these retrogenes. Using individual measurements of height at the shoulder, back length, head width, thorax depth and width, and thoracic limb measurements, we evaluated the combined effects of FGF4 retrogenes within these breeds. We applied multivariable linear regression analysis to determine the effects of retrogene copy numbers on the measurements. Copy numbers of both retrogenes had significant effects reducing height at the shoulders and antebrachial length, with FGF4L1 having a much greater effect than FGF4L2. FGF4L1 alone influenced the degree of carpal valgus and FGF4L2 alone increased head width. Neither retrogene had an effect on thorax width or depth. Selectively breeding dogs with FGF4L1 and without FGF4L2 would likely lead to a reduction in the FGF4L2-related risk of intervertebral disc herniation while maintaining the reduction in leg length resulting from FGF4L1.

Risk factors for cranial cruciate ligament rupture in dogs participating in canine agility.

BACKGROUND: Cranial cruciate ligament rupture (CCLR) is one of the most common causes of pelvic limb lameness in dogs. Risk factors for CCLR include breed (especially large and giant breeds), body weight, gender and spay/neuter status, and age. Few studies have evaluated physical activity and fitness indicators, however, as risk factors for disease. This study used an online questionnaire distributed primarily via social media to assess risk factors for CCLR in dogs actively engaged in agility training or competition to determine demographic and physical activity factors associated with rupture. RESULTS: Data from 260 dogs with CCLR were compared to similar data from 1006 dogs without CCLR. All dogs were actively training or competing in agility at the time of CCLR or the time of data submission, respectively. Physical characteristics associated with increased risk of CCLR included younger age, spayed female sex, greater body weight, and greater weight to height ratio. Agility activities associated with increased odds ratios included competition in events sponsored by the North American Dog Agility Council (NADAC), competing at novice and intermediate levels, and competing in fewer than 10 events/year. Odds ratios were lower in dogs that competed in events sponsored by United Kingdom Agility International (UKI). Other activities associated with increased odds ratio for CCLR included involvement in flyball activities and short walks or runs over hilly or flat terrain on a weekly basis. Activities associated with decreased odds ratio included involvement in dock diving, barn hunt, nosework, or lure coursing/racing activities and participation in core balance and strength exercises at least weekly. CONCLUSIONS: These results are consistent with previous studies demonstrating that body weight and spay/neuter status are risk factors for CCLR in dogs. This is the first report to demonstrate that risk of CCLR in agility dogs is decreased in dogs that engage in regular core strengthening exercises, compete more frequently, compete at higher levels, and compete in more athletically challenging venues.

Tissue Engineering of Canine Cartilage from Surgically Debrided Osteochondritis Dissecans Fragments.

This study in dogs explored the feasibility of using cartilage fragments removed and discarded during routine palliative surgery for osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) as a source of primary chondrocytes for scaffold-free cartilage tissue-engineering. Primary chondrocytes were obtained from three OCD donors and one age-matched healthy articular cartilage (HAC) donor. After monolayer expansion of primary cells, a three-dimensional spherical suspension culture was implemented. Following this stage, cells were seeded at a high density into custom-made agarose molds that allowed for size and shape-specific constructs to be generated via a method of cellular self-assembling in a scaffold-free environment. Fifty-eight neocartilage constructs were tissue-engineered using this methodology. Neocartilage constructs and native cartilage from shoulder joint were subjected to histological, mechanical, and biochemical testing. OCD and HAC chondrocytes-sourced constructs had uniformly flat morphology and histology consistent with cartilage tissue. Constructs sourced from OCD chondrocytes were 1.5-times (32%) stiffer in compression and 1.3 times (23%) stronger in tension than constructs sourced from HAC chondrocytes and only 8.7-times (81%) less stiff in tension than native tissue. Constructs from both cell sources consistently had lower collagen content than native tissue (22.9%/dry weight [DW] for OCD and 4.1%/DW for HAC vs. 51.1%/DW native tissue). To improve the collagen content and mechanical properties of neocartilage, biological and mechanical stimuli, and thyroid hormone (tri-iodothyronine) were applied to the chondrocytes during the self-assembling stage in two separate studies. A 2.6-fold (62%) increase in compressive stiffness was detected with supplementation of biological stimuli alone and 5-fold (81%) increase with combined biological and mechanical stimuli at 20% strain. Application of thyroid hormone improved collagen content (1.7-times, 33%), tensile strength (1.8-times, 43%), and stiffness (1.3-times, 21%) of constructs, relative to untreated controls. Collectively, these data suggest that OCD chondrocytes can serve as a reliable cell source for cartilage tissue-engineering and that canine chondrocytes respond favorably to biological and mechanical stimuli that have been shown effective in chondrocytes from other animal species, including humans.

Evaluation of depth gauge accuracy in a canine tibial plateau leveling osteotomy model.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the accuracy of six depth gauges used in three tibial plateau leveling osteotomy (TPLO) plate holes. STUDY DESIGN: Ex vivo experimental study. ANIMALS AND SAMPLE POPULATION: Cadaveric canine limbs (n = 10), one 25-mm-thick wood board, and one 33.8-mm-diameter polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe. METHODS: A TPLO was performed on 10 canine cadaveric pelvic limbs. Three 3.5-mm plate holes were filled with screws. The remaining three plate holes: a compression hole, a combination compression-locking hole, and a stacked combination compression-locking hole were measured by three observers using six commercial depth gauges and using a micrometer as gold standard. The process was repeated on one wood board and one PVC pipe. RESULTS: Bone measurements collected using two depth gauges with base diameter < 5 mm were smaller than measurements collected using the four depth gauges with base diameter > 5.5 mm (p ranging from < .001 to .038). Mean depth gauge measurements were smaller than micrometer measurements by 2.20 mm for the compression hole, 0.82 mm for the combination hole, and 3.57 mm for the stacked combination hole. Measurement differences among depth gauges were also present for wood board and PVC pipe measurements. Bone measurement variability between depth gauges was less for the combination and compression holes than for the stacked combination hole. CONCLUSION: Depth gauges lacked accuracy. Measurements differed among gauges and measurement variability varied based on plate hole geometry. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Depth gauge measurement accuracy varies based on measuring devices and on 3.5-mm plate hole geometry.

Defining the rate of, and factors influencing, radiographic progression of osteoarthritis of the canine hip joint.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to define the rate of progression of radiographic osteoarthritis (OA) of the canine hip joint and to describe factors affecting this progression. METHODS: Dogs that underwent unilateral total hip replacement (THR) were reviewed for the evaluation of radiographic appearance of the non-operated hip joint over time. Standard extended ventrodorsal hip radiographs were taken preoperatively and postoperatively. All images were anonymized, randomized and scored using three different methods. The mean daily change between evaluations was calculated in each individual dog, and the effect of sex, age, body weight, open/closed status of the proximal femoral physis, preoperative severity of OA, time after surgery and their interactions, were investigated as potential influencing factors. RESULTS: After reviewing the medical records, 163 dogs (468 images) met the inclusion criteria. Consistent across the three scoring systems, radiographic progression of OA was greater in younger (open physis) and spayed female dogs. A subset of seven patients (4.3%) had a faster progression of OA and was considered outliers. No dog was rated as outlier by all three scoring systems. CONCLUSION: The rate of progression of radiographically assessed coxofemoral OA varies greatly, but is faster in younger, spayed female dogs. Unusually fast progression occasionally occurs.

Influence of interlocking thread screws to repair simulated adult canine humeral condylar fractures.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the influence of interlocking screw threads on the biomechanical properties of repaired canine humeral condylar fractures. STUDY DESIGN: Ex vivo biomechanical study. SAMPLE POPULATION: Thirty-six humeral condyles. METHODS: Simulated fractures of the lateral aspect of the humeral condyle were stabilized by a 3.5 mm interlocking thread screw (ITS) or 3.5 mm buttress thread screw placed in lag (BTS-L) or positional fashion (BTS-P) and axially loaded at a walk, trot, 2-mm displacement, and failure cycles. Compact flute drill bits (CFBs) were used for ITS constructs and standard flute drill bits (SFB) for BTS constructs. The effects of bit type on drilling parameters and screw type on screw insertion properties and fragment stability were assessed. RESULTS: CFB produced a 6°C greater temperature increase (p = .042) and required 20 N higher torque (p = .003) than SFB. Insertional torque was greater for ITS than BTS-P (p = .001) and BTS-L (p = .001). Condylar fragment rotation at failure was lower in ITS (lsmean ± SE, 8.3° ± 1.9°) than BTS-L constructs (14.5° ± 2.3°, p = .011). ITS resisted greater loads (1503 ± 105 N) than BTS-P (1189 ± 99 N, p = .038) but not BTS-L (1249 ± 123 N, p = .121) constructs. CONCLUSION: Biomechanical performance of constructs was improved with ITS rather than BTS fixation. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: ITS can be considered for stabilization of humeral condylar fractures in adult dogs.

Evaluation of computer-aided design software methods for assessment of the three-dimensional geometry of the canine radius.

OBJECTIVE: To describe methods to measure the 3-D orientation of the proximal, diaphyseal, and distal segments of the canine radius by use of computer-aided design software (CADS) and to compare the repeatability and reliability of measurements derived by those methods. SAMPLE: 31 canine radii with biapical deformities and 24 clinically normal (control) canine radii. PROCEDURES: Select CT scans of radii were imported into a CADS program. Cartesian coordinate systems for the humerus and proximal, diaphyseal, and distal radial segments were developed. The orientation of each radial segment in the frontal, sagittal, and transverse planes was measured in triplicate by 3 methods. The repeatability and reliability of those measurements were calculated and compared among the 3 measurement methods. RESULTS: The mean ± SD within-subject repeatability of radial angular measurements for all 3 methods was 1.40 ± 0.67° in the frontal plane, 3.17 ± 2.21° in the sagittal plane, and 3.01 ± 1.11° in the transverse plane for control radii and 2.56 ± 1.95° in the frontal plane, 3.59 ± 2.39° in the sagittal plane, and 3.47 ± 1.19° in the transverse plane for abnormal radii. Mean ± SD bias between radial measurement methods was 1.88 ± 2.07° in the frontal plane, 6.44 ± 6.80° in the sagittal plane, and 2.27 ± 2.81° in the transverse plane. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results indicated that use of CADS to assess the 3-D orientation of the proximal, diaphyseal, and distal segments of normal and abnormal canine radii yielded highly repeatable and reliable measurements.