Factors Associated with Daily Fruit and Vegetable Intakes among Children Aged 1-5 Years in the United States.

To describe child, caregiver, and household characteristics associated with fruit and vegetable intakes among US children aged 1-5 years, we examined fruit and vegetable intakes (less than daily vs. daily) using data from the 2021 National Survey of Children's Health among children aged 1-5 years. Multiple logistic regression provided adjusted odds ratios for factors associated with (1) daily fruit and (2) daily vegetable intakes. Among children aged 1-5 years, 68% (n = 11,124) consumed fruit daily, and 51% (n = 8292) consumed vegetables daily. Both daily fruit and daily vegetable intake were associated with child age, child race and ethnicity, and frequency of family meals. For example, children who ate a family meal 4-6 days/week (aOR 0.69; 95% CI 0.57, 0.83) or 0-3 days/week (aOR 0.57; 95% CI 0.46, 0.72) were less likely to consume fruit daily compared to children who had a family meal every day. Participation in food assistance programs, food insufficiency, and household income were not significantly associated with odds of daily fruit or daily vegetable intake in the adjusted models. Several factors were associated with daily fruit and vegetable intake among children aged 1-5. Strategies aimed at increasing fruit and vegetable consumption in early childhood may consider these child, caregiver, and household characteristics. Pediatric healthcare providers, early childhood education centers, and families of young children may be important partners in this work.

Disaggregation of Breastfeeding Initiation Rates by Race and Ethnicity - United States, 2020-2021.

Introduction: Although breastfeeding is the ideal source of nutrition for most infants, racial and ethnic disparities exist in its initiation. Surveillance rates based on aggregated data can challenge the understanding and monitoring of effective, culturally appropriate interventions among racial and ethnic subgroups. Aggregated data have historically estimated breastfeeding rates among a few large racial and ethnic groups. We examined differences in breastfeeding initiation rates by disaggregation of data to finer subgroups of race and ethnicity. Methods: We analyzed births from January 1, 2020, through December 31, 2021, in 48 states and the District of Columbia by using National Vital Statistics System birth certificate data. Data indicate whether an infant received any breast milk during birth hospitalization and include self-reported maternal race and ethnicity. Cross-tabulations of race and ethnicity by breastfeeding initiation were calculated and compared across aggregated and disaggregated categories. Results: The overall prevalence of breastfeeding initiation was 84.0%, ranging from 74.5% (mothers identifying as Black) to 94.0% (mothers identifying as Japanese). The aggregated prevalence of breastfeeding initiation among mothers identifying as Hispanic was 86.8%; disaggregated estimates by Hispanic origin ranged from 82.2% (Puerto Rican) to 90.9% (Cuban). Conclusion: Substantial variation in the prevalence of breastfeeding initiation across disaggregated racial or ethnic categories exists. Disaggregation of racial and ethnic data unmasked differences that could reflect variations in cultural practices or systemic barriers to breastfeeding. Understanding why these differences exist could guide public health practitioners' efforts to improve and tailor breastfeeding support.

Early introduction of complementary foods/drinks and milk feeding type in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC).

Infants younger than 4 months are not ready for complementary foods/drinks (any solid or liquid other than breast milk or infant formula). Almost half of US infants participate in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC), which provides nutrition education and support to low-income families. We describe the prevalence of early introduction (<4 months) of complementary foods/drinks and examine the association of milk feeding type (fully breastfed, partially breastfed or fully formula fed) with early introduction of complementary foods/drinks. We used data from 3310 families in the longitudinal WIC Infant and Toddler Feeding Practices Study-2. We described the prevalence of early introduction of complementary foods/drinks and modeled the association of milk feeding type at Month 1 with early introduction of complementary foods/drinks using multi-variable logistic regression. Thirty-eight percent of infants were introduced early to complementary foods/drinks (<4 months). In adjusted models, infants who were fully formula fed or partially breastfed at Month 1 were 75% and 57%, respectively, more likely to be introduced early to complementary foods/drinks compared with fully breastfed infants. Almost two in five infants were given complementary foods/drinks early. Formula feeding at Month 1 was associated with higher odds of early introduction of complementary foods/drinks. There are opportunities to support families participating in WIC to prevent early introduction of complementary foods/drinks and promote child health.

Human milk expression in the first year postpartum among persons with low incomes.

BACKGROUND: Expressing milk (i.e., human milk) is common in the USA, but practices are unknown among families in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). This study of a WIC population explores the practice of and reasons for expressing milk in the first year postpartum. METHODS: We analysed data from a longitudinal study to examine milk expression at 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13 months postpartum among breastfeeding persons enrolled in WIC with term singletons. We cross-sectionally analysed the weighted prevalence of milk expression at each survey month and report reasons for milk expression in the first 7 months. RESULTS: Among the study participants who reported feeding human milk at Month 1, 70.4% expressed milk in the first 13 months postpartum. The prevalence of milk expression was 56.8% at Month 1 and decreased to 13.9% at Month 13 among those feeding any human milk that month. Reasons for expressing milk changed over time; in the first month, increasing milk supply, relieving engorgement, and having an emergency supply of milk were common. In later months, having a supply of milk available so that someone else could feed their infant was common. CONCLUSIONS: Clinicians, health educators, WIC staff, and others working with WIC families can promote optimal expressed milk feeding and storage practices. Extra attention and support may be especially important in the first months postpartum when milk expression is common. Support for persons who are expressing milk can be tailored for reasons of milk expression.

Estimated Number of COVID-19 Infections, Hospitalizations, and Deaths Prevented Among Vaccinated Persons in the US, December 2020 to September 2021.

Importance: The number of SARS-CoV-2 infections and COVID-19-associated hospitalizations and deaths prevented among vaccinated persons, independent of the effect of reduced transmission, is a key measure of vaccine impact. Objective: To estimate the number of SARS-CoV-2 infections and COVID-19-associated hospitalizations and deaths prevented among vaccinated adults in the US. Design, Setting, and Participants: In this modeling study, a multiplier model was used to extrapolate the number of SARS-CoV-2 infections and COVID-19-associated deaths from data on the number of COVID-19-associated hospitalizations stratified by state, month, and age group (18-49, 50-64, and ≥65 years) in the US from December 1, 2020, to September 30, 2021. These estimates were combined with data on vaccine coverage and effectiveness to estimate the risks of infections, hospitalizations, and deaths. Risks were applied to the US population 18 years or older to estimate the expected burden in that population without vaccination. The estimated burden in the US population 18 years or older given observed levels of vaccination was subtracted from the expected burden in the US population 18 years or older without vaccination (ie, counterfactual) to estimate the impact of vaccination among vaccinated persons. Exposures: Completion of the COVID-19 vaccination course, defined as 2 doses of messenger RNA (BNT162b2 or mRNA-1273) vaccines or 1 dose of JNJ-78436735 vaccine. Main Outcomes and Measures: Monthly numbers and percentages of SARS-CoV-2 infections and COVID-19-associated hospitalizations and deaths prevented were estimated among those who have been vaccinated in the US. Results: COVID-19 vaccination was estimated to prevent approximately 27 million (95% uncertainty interval [UI], 22 million to 34 million) infections, 1.6 million (95% UI, 1.4 million to 1.8 million) hospitalizations, and 235 000 (95% UI, 175 000-305 000) deaths in the US from December 1, 2020, to September 30, 2021, among vaccinated adults 18 years or older. From September 1 to September 30, 2021, vaccination was estimated to prevent 52% (95% UI, 45%-62%) of expected infections, 56% (95% UI, 52%-62%) of expected hospitalizations, and 58% (95% UI, 53%-63%) of expected deaths in adults 18 years or older. Conclusions and Relevance: These findings indicate that the US COVID-19 vaccination program prevented a substantial burden of morbidity and mortality through direct protection of vaccinated individuals.

Epidemiology beyond its limits.

In 1995, journalist Gary Taubes published an article in Science titled "Epidemiology faces its limits," which questioned the utility of nonrandomized epidemiologic research and has since been cited more than 1000 times. He highlighted numerous examples of research topics he viewed as having questionable merit. Studies have since accumulated for these associations. We systematically evaluated current evidence of 53 example associations discussed in the article. Approximately one-quarter of those presented as doubtful are now widely viewed as causal based on current evaluations of the public health consensus. They include associations between alcohol consumption and breast cancer, residential radon exposure and lung cancer, and the use of tanning devices and melanoma. This history should inform current debates about the reproducibility of epidemiologic research results.

Hospitalizations of Children Aged 5-11 Years with Laboratory-Confirmed COVID-19 - COVID-NET, 14 States, March 2020-February 2022.

On October 29, 2021, the Food and Drug Administration expanded the Emergency Use Authorization for Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine to children aged 5-11 years; CDC's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices' recommendation followed on November 2, 2021.* In late December 2021, the B.1.1.529 (Omicron) variant of SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19) became the predominant strain in the United States,† coinciding with a rapid increase in COVID-19-associated hospitalizations among all age groups, including children aged 5-11 years (1). COVID-19-Associated Hospitalization Surveillance Network (COVID-NET)§ data were analyzed to describe characteristics of COVID-19-associated hospitalizations among 1,475 U.S. children aged 5-11 years throughout the pandemic, focusing on the period of early Omicron predominance (December 19, 2021-February 28, 2022). Among 397 children hospitalized during the Omicron-predominant period, 87% were unvaccinated, 30% had no underlying medical conditions, and 19% were admitted to an intensive care unit (ICU). The cumulative hospitalization rate during the Omicron-predominant period was 2.1 times as high among unvaccinated children (19.1 per 100,000 population) as among vaccinated¶ children (9.2).** Non-Hispanic Black (Black) children accounted for the largest proportion of unvaccinated children (34%) and represented approximately one third of COVID-19-associated hospitalizations in this age group. Children with diabetes and obesity were more likely to experience severe COVID-19. The potential for serious illness among children aged 5-11 years, including those with no underlying health conditions, highlights the importance of vaccination among this age group. Increasing vaccination coverage among children, particularly among racial and ethnic minority groups disproportionately affected by COVID-19, is critical to preventing COVID-19-associated hospitalization and severe outcomes.

Hospitalization of Infants and Children Aged 0-4 Years with Laboratory-Confirmed COVID-19 - COVID-NET, 14 States, March 2020-February 2022.

The B.1.1.529 (Omicron) variant of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, has been the predominant circulating variant in the United States since late December 2021.* Coinciding with increased Omicron circulation, COVID-19-associated hospitalization rates increased rapidly among infants and children aged 0-4 years, a group not yet eligible for vaccination (1). Coronavirus Disease 19-Associated Hospitalization Surveillance Network (COVID-NET)† data were analyzed to describe COVID-19-associated hospitalizations among U.S. infants and children aged 0-4 years since March 2020. During the period of Omicron predominance (December 19, 2021-February 19, 2022), weekly COVID-19-associated hospitalization rates per 100,000 infants and children aged 0-4 years peaked at 14.5 (week ending January 8, 2022); this Omicron-predominant period peak was approximately five times that during the period of SARS-CoV-2 B.1.617.2 (Delta) predominance (June 27-December 18, 2021, which peaked the week ending September 11, 2021).§ During Omicron predominance, 63% of hospitalized infants and children had no underlying medical conditions; infants aged <6 months accounted for 44% of hospitalizations, although no differences were observed in indicators of severity by age. Strategies to prevent COVID-19 among infants and young children are important and include vaccination among currently eligible populations (2) such as pregnant women (3), family members, and caregivers of infants and young children (4).

Hospitalizations of Children and Adolescents with Laboratory-Confirmed COVID-19 - COVID-NET, 14 States, July 2021-January 2022.

The first U.S. case of COVID-19 attributed to the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19) was reported on December 1, 2021 (1), and by the week ending December 25, 2021, Omicron was the predominant circulating variant in the United States.* Although COVID-19-associated hospitalizations are more frequent among adults,† COVID-19 can lead to severe outcomes in children and adolescents (2). This report analyzes data from the Coronavirus Disease 19-Associated Hospitalization Surveillance Network (COVID-NET)§ to describe COVID-19-associated hospitalizations among U.S. children (aged 0-11 years) and adolescents (aged 12-17 years) during periods of Delta (July 1-December 18, 2021) and Omicron (December 19, 2021-January 22, 2022) predominance. During the Delta- and Omicron-predominant periods, rates of weekly COVID-19-associated hospitalizations per 100,000 children and adolescents peaked during the weeks ending September 11, 2021, and January 8, 2022, respectively. The Omicron variant peak (7.1 per 100,000) was four times that of the Delta variant peak (1.8), with the largest increase observed among children aged 0-4 years.¶ During December 2021, the monthly hospitalization rate among unvaccinated adolescents aged 12-17 years (23.5) was six times that among fully vaccinated adolescents (3.8). Strategies to prevent COVID-19 among children and adolescents, including vaccination of eligible persons, are critical.*.

Prenatal exposure to mixtures of persistent endocrine disrupting chemicals and postnatal body size in British girls.

BACKGROUND: Endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC) exposure is ubiquitous. EDC exposure during critical windows of development may interfere with the body's endocrine system, affecting growth. Previous human studies have examined one EDC at a time in relation to infant growth. By studying mixtures, the human experience can be better approximated. AIMS: We investigated the association of prenatal exposure to persistent EDCs (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs)) as mixtures with postnatal body size among female offspring. SUBJECTS: We used a sub-sample of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (N = 425), based in the United Kingdom. STUDY DESIGN: We quantified 52 EDCs in maternal serum collected during pregnancy. We used Bayesian kernel machine regression with a random intercept to examine the association of prenatal concentrations of EDC mixtures with longitudinal postnatal body size measures for each EDC class separately (PFAS, PCBs, and OCPs) and for all three classes combined. OUTCOME MEASURES: Weight and height measures at 0, 2, 9, and 19 months were obtained by health professionals as part of routine child health surveillance. RESULTS: The mixture representing all three classes combined (31 chemicals) (n = 301) was inversely associated with postnatal body size. Holding all EDCs in the 31-chemical mixture at the 75th percentile compared to the 50th percentile was associated with 0.15 lower weight-for-age z-score (95% credible interval -0.26, -0.03). Weak inverse associations were also seen for height-for-age and body mass index-for-age scores. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that prenatal exposure to mixtures of persistent EDCs may affect postnatal body size.

Prenatal Exposure to Mixtures of Persistent Endocrine-disrupting Chemicals and Birth Size in a Population-based Cohort of British Girls.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies of endocrine-disrupting chemicals have examined one of these chemicals at a time in association with an outcome; studying mixtures better approximates human experience. We investigated the association of prenatal exposure to mixtures of persistent endocrine disruptors (perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances [PFAS], polychlorinated biphenyls [PCBs], and organochlorine pesticides) with birth size among female offspring in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), based in the United Kingdom in 1991-1992. METHODS: We quantified concentrations of 52 endocrine-disrupting chemicals in maternal serum collected during pregnancy at median 15-week gestation. Birth weight, crown-to-heel length, and head circumference were measured at birth; ponderal index and small for gestational age were calculated from these. We used repeated holdout Weighted Quantile Sum (WQS) regression and Bayesian kernel machine regression to examine mixtures in 313 mothers. RESULTS: Using WQS regression, all mixtures (each chemical class separately and all three together) were inversely associated with birth weight. A one-unit increase in WQS index (a one-decile increase in chemical concentrations) for all three classes combined was associated with 55 g (ß = -55 g, 95% confidence interval [CI] = -89, -22 g) lower birth weight. Associations were weaker but still inverse using Bayesian kernel machine regression. Under both methods, PFAS were the most important contributors to the association with birth weight. We also observed inverse associations for crown-to-heel length. CONCLUSIONS: These results are consistent with the hypothesis that prenatal exposure to mixtures of persistent endocrine-disrupting chemicals affects birth size.

Prenatal exposure to mixtures of persistent endocrine disrupting chemicals and early menarche in a population-based cohort of British girls.

Exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) is ubiquitous. EDC exposure, especially during critical periods of development like the prenatal window, may interfere with the body's endocrine system, which can affect growth and developmental outcomes such as puberty. Most studies have examined one EDC at a time in relation to disease; however, humans are exposed to many EDCs. By studying mixtures, the human experience can be more closely replicated. We investigated the association of prenatal exposure to persistent EDCs (poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs)) as mixtures with early menarche among female offspring in a nested case-control study within the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) recruited in the United Kingdom in 1991-1992. Concentrations of 52 EDCs were quantified in maternal serum samples collected during pregnancy. Daughter's age at menarche was ascertained through mailed questionnaires sent annually. We used repeated holdout weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) to examine the association between prenatal exposure to multiple EDCs and early menarche (<11.5 (n = 218) vs. ≥11.5 years (n = 230)) for each chemical class separately (PFAS, PCBs, and OCPs) and for all three classes combined. Models adjusted for maternal age at menarche, maternal education, parity, pre-pregnancy body mass index, maternal age, prenatal smoking, and gestational week at sample collection. Mixture models showed null associations between prenatal exposure to EDC mixtures and early menarche. Using WQS regression, the odds ratio for early menarche for a one-decile increase in chemical concentrations for all three classes combined was 0.89 (95% CI: 0.76, 1.05); using BKMR, the odds ratio when all exposures were at the 60th percentile compared to the median was 0.98 (95% CI: 0.91, 1.05). Results suggest the overall effect of prenatal exposure to persistent EDC mixtures is not associated with early menarche.

Maternal dietary patterns during pregnancy and exposure to persistent endocrine disrupting chemicals in two European birth cohorts.

Food consumption, particularly of animal-based products, is considered the most important contributor to persistent endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC) exposure. This study aims to describe the association between maternal diet during pregnancy and exposure to persistent EDCs using dietary pattern analysis. This study is based on subsamples of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) (N=422) and the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) (N=276) which uses data from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway (MBRN). Women in both studies completed food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) during pregnancy, from which consumption data were categorized into 38 aggregated food groups. Maternal blood samples were collected during pregnancy and concentrations of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in serum/plasma were measured. Dietary patterns were identified using reduced rank regression, with blood EDC concentrations as response variables. Within ALSPAC, all patterns (PFAS, PCB, and OCP) were characterized by high consumption of meat, poultry, white fish, and biscuits. In MoBa, high consumption of sausages and burgers (representing processed meats), pasta, and chocolate bars characterized PCB and OCP dietary patterns, while high consumption of cheese characterized the PFAS pattern. Across both cohorts, PFAS patterns were characterized by high consumption of cheese, PCB patterns by high consumption of rice, and OCP patterns by poultry. Dietary patterns explained between 8 and 20% of the variation in serum EDC concentrations, with explained variance being the highest for PCBs in both cohorts. In conclusion, dietary patterns high in animal-based products appear to be associated with persistent EDC concentrations among pregnant women. Diet explains more variation in PCB concentrations than for other persistent EDC classes.

Maternal serum concentrations of perfluoroalkyl substances during pregnancy and gestational weight gain: The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children.

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are chemicals used in the manufacture of consumer products. PFAS may act as endocrine disruptors, influencing metabolic pathways and weight-related outcomes. Previous studies observed an association between perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and higher gestational weight gain among under-/normal weight mothers. We analyzed associations of maternal serum pregnancy concentrations of PFAS with gestational weight gain (GWG) using data from 905 women in a subsample of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Women were routinely weighed in antenatal check-ups; absolute GWG was determined by subtracting the first weight measurement from the last. Linear regression was used to explore associations of maternal PFAS concentrations with absolute GWG, stratified by prepregnancy body mass index. Associations of maternal PFOS, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS) concentrations with absolute GWG were null; 10% higher PFOS was associated with GWG of -0.03 kg (95% CI: -0.11, 0.06) among under-/normal weight mothers. Ten percent higher perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) was associated with a higher GWG of 0.09 kg (95% CI: 0.02, 0.16) among under-/normal weight mothers. Overall, findings suggest no association between maternal PFOA, PFOS, and PFHxS concentrations and GWG, and a weak positive association between maternal PFNA and GWG.

Prenatal exposure to Polychlorinated Biphenyls and body fatness in girls.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are synthetic, organochlorine compounds previously used in industrial processes. Although banned in 1980's across Europe, these chemicals persist in the environment and are associated with adverse health outcomes in children. We investigated the association between in utero concentrations of PCBs and girls' body fatness. Concentrations of various PCB congeners (PCB 118, PCB 138, PCB 153, PCB 170, and PCB 180) were measured in maternal serum samples collected in the early 1990's. Body fatness was measured in the daughters at 9 y of age using body mass index (BMI) and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) for percent body fat. Using multivariable linear regression, we explored associations between prenatal PCB congener concentrations and body fatness outcomes. Among 339 mother-daughter dyads, the median and interquartile range (IQR) for PCB congeners ranged between 15.0 ng g-1 (11.0-20.8) for PCB 118 to 64.6 ng g-1 (48.6-86.3) for PCB 153. Among daughters, the median was 27.5% (21.7-34.6) for percent body fat, 39.6% (36.4-43.5) for percent trunk fat, 4.9 kg m-2 (3.5-7.0) for fat mass index and 18.1 kg m-2 (16.3-20.6) for body mass index. Multivariable-adjusted regression analyses showed little or no association between prenatal PCB concentrations with daughters' body fatness measures. Prenatal concentrations of PCB congeners were not strongly associated with measures of body fatness in girls.

Maternal serum concentrations of perfluoroalkyl substances and birth size in British boys.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been widely used in commercial and industrial manufacturing processes since the 1950s. Inverse associations between prenatal exposure to PFAS and birth size have been found in populations around the globe. This study examined the association of prenatal maternal serum concentrations of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS), and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) and birth size in British boys. The study included 457 mother-son dyads participating in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Birth weight (g), crown to heel length (cm), and head circumference (cm) were collected at delivery. PFAS were detected in all maternal serum samples during pregnancy (median: 30 weeks gestation (interquartile range: 12-33)). Median concentrations (interquartile range) were 13.8 ng/mL (11.0, 17.7), 3.0 ng/mL (2.3, 3.8), 1.9 ng/mL (1.4, 2.5), and 0.4 ng/mL (0.3, 0.5) for PFOS, PFOA, PFHxS, and PFNA, respectively. In multivariable linear regression models, inverse associations were detected between PFOS (continuous) and birth weight (ß = -8.50 g, 95% CI = -15.93, -1.07 g), crown to heel length (ß = -0.04 cm, 95% CI = -0.08, -0.01 cm), and head circumference (ß = -0.02 cm, 95% CI = -0.04, -0.002 cm). In conclusion, prenatal exposure to high levels of PFOS may be associated with reduced birth size in male infants.

Dietary Oxidative Balance Scores and Biomarkers of Inflammation among Individuals with and without Chronic Kidney Disease.

BACKGROUND: Oxidative stress and inflammation are proposed mechanisms of nonspecific kidney injury and progressive kidney failure. Higher dietary oxidative balance scores (OBS) are associated with lower prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD). METHODS: We investigated the association between OBS and biomarkers of inflammation using data from the Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) study. Nutrient estimates from the Block Food Frequency Questionnaires were used to define tertiles of 11 pro- and antioxidant factors. Points for each OBS component were summed, with a higher score indicating predominance of antioxidant exposures. Multivariable linear regression models were used to estimate the association between OBS and biomarkers of inflammation (interleukin-6 [IL-6], interleukin-8 [IL-8], interleukin-10 [IL-10], fibrinogen, C-reactive protein [CRP], white blood cell count, and cystatin C). An interaction term was included to determine if associations between OBS and inflammatory markers differed between individuals with and without CKD. RESULTS: Of 682 participants, 22.4% had CKD. In adjusted models, OBS was associated with CRP and IL-6. For every 5-unit increase in OBS, the CRP concentration was -15.3% lower (95% CI: -25.6, -3.6). The association of OBS with IL-6 differed by CKD status; for every 5-unit increase in OBS, IL-6 was -10.7% lower (95% CI: -16.3, -4.7) among those without CKD, but there was no association among those with CKD (p = 0.03). CONCLUSION: This study suggests that a higher OBS is associated with more favorable levels of IL-6 and CRP, and that the association of OBS and IL-6 may be modified by CKD status.

Review of Grain Fortification Legislation, Standards, and Monitoring Documents.

OBJECTIVE: Analyze the content of documents used to guide mandatory fortification programs for cereal grains. METHODS: Legislation, standards, and monitoring documents, which are used to mandate, provide specifications for, and confirm fortification, respectively, were collected from countries with mandatory wheat flour (n=80), maize flour (n=11), and/or rice (n=6) fortification as of January 31, 2015, yielding 97 possible country-grain combinations (e.g., Philippines-wheat flour, Philippines-rice) for the analysis. After excluding countries with limited or no documentation, 72 reviews were completed, representing 84 country-grain combinations. Based on best practices, a criteria checklist was created with 44 items that should be included in fortification documents. Two reviewers independently scored each available document set for a given country and food vehicle (a country-grain combination) using the checklist, and then reached consensus on the scoring. We calculated the percentage of country-grain combinations containing each checklist item and examined differences in scores by grain, region, and income level. RESULTS: Of the 72 country-grain combinations, the majority of documentation came from countries in the Americas (46%) and Africa (32%), and most were from upper and lower middle-income countries (73%). The majority of country-grain combinations had documentation stating the food vehicle(s) to be fortified (97%) and the micronutrients (e.g., iron) (100%), fortificants (e.g., ferrous fumarate) (88%), and fortification levels required (96%). Most (78%) stated that labeling is required to indicate a product is fortified. Many country-grain combinations described systems for external (64%) monitoring, and stated that industry is required to follow quality assurance/quality control (64%), though detailed protocols (33%) and roles and responsibilities (45%) were frequently not described. CONCLUSIONS: Most country-grain combinations have systems in place for internal, external, and import monitoring. However, documentation of other important items that would influence product compliance to national standard, such as roles and responsibilities between agencies, the cost of regulating fortification, and enforcement strategies, are often lacking. Countries with existing mandatory fortification can improve upon these items in revisions to their documentation while countries that are beginning fortification can use the checklist to assist in developing new policies and programs.

Exposure to phytoestrogens in utero and age at menarche in a contemporary British cohort.

Phytoestrogens are estrogenic compounds that occur naturally in plants. Phytoestrogens can cross the placenta, and animal studies have found associations between in utero exposure to phytoestrogens and markers of early puberty. We investigated the association between in utero exposure to phytoestrogens and early menarche (defined as <11.5 years of age at onset) using data from a nested case-control study within the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, a longitudinal study involving families living in the South West of England. Concentrations of six phytoestrogens were measured in maternal urine samples collected during pregnancy. Logistic regression was used to explore associations between tertiles of phytoestrogen concentrations and menarche status, with adjustment for maternal age at menarche, maternal education, pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI), child birth order, duration of breastfeeding, and gestational age at sample collection. Among 367 mother-daughter dyads, maternal median (interquartile range) creatinine-corrected concentrations (in µg/g creatinine) were: genistein 62.1 (27.1-160.9), daidzein 184.8 (88.8-383.7), equol 4.3 (2.8-9.0), O-desmethylangolensin (O-DMA) 13.0 (4.4-34.5), enterodiol 76.1 (39.1-135.8), and enterolactone 911.7 (448.1-1558.0). In analyses comparing those in the highest tertile relative to those in the lowest tertile of in utero phytoestrogen exposure, higher enterodiol levels were inversely associated with early menarche (odds ratio (OR)=0.47; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.26-0.83), while higher O-DMA levels were associated with early menarche (OR=1.89; 95% CI: 1.04-3.42). These findings suggest that in utero exposure to phytoestrogens may be associated with earlier age at menarche, though the direction of association differs across phytoestrogens.