Variation in perceived health across gender, working status, educational level, and regional health care expenditure in Spain (2014-2017).

A gender perspective was used to analyze whether and how education, unemployment, and per capita public health expenditure were associated with perceived health among the Spanish population between the years 2014 and 2017. Using multilevel methodologies (looking at year, individual, and region) and linear and logistic specifications, we analyzed longitudinal microdata files from the Survey on Living Conditions. The results suggest that women with lower educational levels tend to report worse health than their more educated counterparts. On the other hand, women's bad health was not associated with unemployment, unlike men's. Regional per capita public health expenditure was not associated with perceived health in either men or women.

Cost-effectiveness of a primary care-based exercise intervention in perimenopausal women. The FLAMENCO Project / Análisis de coste-efectividad de un programa de ejercicio físico en mujeres perimenopáusicas. Proyecto FLAMENCO

OBJECTIVE: Adequate physical activity levels and a healthy lifestyle may prevent all kinds of non-communicable diseases, promote well-being and reduce health-care costs among perimenopausal women. This study assessed an exercise programme for perimenopausal women. METHOD: A total of 150 women (aged 45-64 years) not engaged in regular physical activity were randomly assigned to either a 16 week exercise intervention or to the control group. The study was conducted from the perspective of the National Health System. Health outcomes were quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), measured by the EuroQol-5D-5L questionnaire. The total direct costs of the programme were the costs of visits to primary care, specialty care, emergency, medicines, instructor cost and infrastructure cost. The results were expressed as the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio. Sensitivity analysis was undertaken to test the robustness of the analysis. RESULTS: Mean QALYs over 16 weeks were.228 in the control group and.230 in the intervention group (mean difference: .002; 95% confidence interval [95%CI]: -0.005 to 0.009). Improvements from baseline were greater in the intervention group in all dimensions of the EuroQol-5D-5L but not statistically significant. The total costs at the end of the intervention were 160.38 € in the control group and 167.80 € in the intervention group (mean difference: 7.42 €; 95%CI: -47 to 62). The exercise programme had an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of 4,686 €/QALY. CONCLUSIONS: The programme could be considered cost-effective, although the overall difference in health benefits and costs was very modest. Longer term follow-up is needed

OBJETIVO: El ejercicio físico puede promover el bienestar y reducir los costes de atención médica en las mujeres perimenopáusicas. Este estudio evalúa un programa de ejercicio físico en mujeres perimenopáusicas. MÉTODO: Un total de 150 mujeres (de edades comprendidas entre 45 y 64 años) fueron asignadas aleatoriamente al grupo de intervención o al grupo de control. El estudio ha tenido una duración de 16 semanas. Los resultados en salud se han medido en años de vida ajustados por calidad (AVAC) mediante el cuestionario EuroQol-5D-5L. Se ha considerado el total de costes directos del programa, integrado por los costes de las visitas en atención primaria, atención especializada y urgencias, medicamentos, coste del monitor y coste de las instalaciones. Los resultados se han expresado como ratio coste-efectividad incremental. La robustez del modelo se ha contrastado con un análisis de sensibilidad. RESULTADOS: Al final de la intervención, los AVAC fueron 0,228 en el grupo de control y 0,230 en el grupo de intervención (diferencia media: 0,002; intervalo de confianza del 95% [IC95%]: -0,005 a 0,009). La mejoría fue mayor en el grupo de intervención en todas las dimensiones del EuroQol-5D-5L, pero sin significación estadística. Los costes totales al finalizar la intervención han sido de 160,38 € en el grupo de control y 167,80 € en el de intervención (diferencia media: 7,42 €; IC95%: -47 a 62). El programa de ejercicio físico ha tenido una ratio coste-efectividad incremental de 4686 €/AVAC. CONCLUSIÓN: El programa debe considerarse coste-efectivo, aunque la diferencia en resultados de salud y costes ha sido muy moderada. Se necesita un seguimiento a más largo plazo

Cost-effectiveness of a primary care-based exercise intervention in perimenopausal women. The FLAMENCO Project.

OBJECTIVE: Adequate physical activity levels and a healthy lifestyle may prevent all kinds of non-communicable diseases, promote well-being and reduce health-care costs among perimenopausal women. This study assessed an exercise programme for perimenopausal women. METHOD: A total of 150 women (aged 45-64 years) not engaged in regular physical activity were randomly assigned to either a 16 week exercise intervention or to the control group. The study was conducted from the perspective of the National Health System. Health outcomes were quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), measured by the EuroQol-5D-5L questionnaire. The total direct costs of the programme were the costs of visits to primary care, specialty care, emergency, medicines, instructor cost and infrastructure cost. The results were expressed as the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio. Sensitivity analysis was undertaken to test the robustness of the analysis. RESULTS: Mean QALYs over 16 weeks were.228 in the control group and.230 in the intervention group (mean difference: .002; 95% confidence interval [95%CI]: -0.005 to 0.009). Improvements from baseline were greater in the intervention group in all dimensions of the EuroQol-5D-5L but not statistically significant. The total costs at the end of the intervention were 160.38 € in the control group and 167.80 € in the intervention group (mean difference: 7.42 €; 95%CI: -47 to 62). The exercise programme had an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of 4,686 €/QALY. CONCLUSIONS: The programme could be considered cost-effective, although the overall difference in health benefits and costs was very modest. Longer term follow-up is needed.

Long term unemployment, income, poverty, and social public expenditure, and their relationship with self-perceived health in Spain (2007-2011).

BACKGROUND: There is scant research that simultaneously analyzes the joint effects of long-term unemployment, poverty and public expenditure policies on poorer self-perceived health during the financial crisis. The aim of the study is to analyze the joint relationship between long-term unemployment, social deprivation, and regional social public expenditure on one side, and self-perceived health in Spain (2007-2011) on the other. METHODS: Longitudinal data were extracted from the Survey on Living Conditions, 2007-2010 and 2008-2011 (9105 individuals and 36,420 observations), which were then used to estimate several random group effects in the constant multilevel logistic longitudinal models (level 1: year; level 2: individual; level 3: region). The dependent variable was self-perceived health. Individual independent interest variables were long and very long term unemployment, available income, severe material deprivation and regional variables were per capita expenditure on essential public services and per capita health care expenditure. RESULTS: All of the estimated models show a robust association between bad perceived health and the variables of interest. When compared to employed individuals, long term unemployment increases the odds of reporting bad health by 22% to 67%; very long-term unemployment (24 to 48 months) increases the odds by 54% to 132%. Family income reduces the odds of reporting bad health by 16% to 28% for each additional percentage point in income. Being a member of a household with severe material deprivation increases the odds of perceiving one's health as bad by between 70% and 140%. Regionally, per capita expenditure on essential public services increases the odds of reporting good health, although the effect of this association was limited. CONCLUSIONS: Long and very long term unemployment, available income and poverty were associated to self-perceived bad health in Spain during the financial crisis. Regional expenditure on fundamental public services is also associated to poor self-perceived health, although in a more limited fashion. Results suggest the positive role in health of active employment and redistributing income policies.

Multilevel analysis of income, income inequalities and health in Spain.

The aim of this study is to test the influence of personal income (absolute income hypothesis), income inequalities and welfare (relative income hypothesis) on health. A multilevel cross-sectional logit model is used with two alternative specifications of the dependent variable: self-perceived health and chronic illnesses, and six specifications of the income inequality: three positive and three normative. This study incorporates lagged values of the regional variables and interactions between the individual and the regional variables. The data is drawn from the Spanish Life Conditions Survey for 2007 and consists of 28,023 individuals over 16 from 17 autonomous communities. The results support the absolute income hypothesis that a higher level of personal income is correlated with a lower probability of negative health outcomes. The relative income hypothesis results are mixed with only some indicators showing a significant relationship with health. The results also indicate that being a man, being married, working and having a high level of education are related to improved health. This study emphasizes the importance both of the health variable and of the specification of income inequality, and contributes to augmenting the limited empirical evidence available in Spain on the influence of income and income inequalities on the health of the population.