Maternal depressive symptoms trajectories and harsh parenting: the mediating role of maternal quality of life in the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort.

OBJECTIVE: To study the impacts of maternal depressive symptoms trajectories and harsh parenting and explore if the maternal quality of life mediates this association. METHODS: We used data from the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort, a population-based longitudinal study from Pelotas, Brazil (N = 3285 mothers, complete cases analysis). We used the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale to assess maternal depressive symptoms and the trajectories from three months until the 11-year follow-up were calculated using a group-based modelling approach. Psychological and physical aggression were measured using the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale. Maternal quality of life was measured by the question "How is your quality of life?". Data were analyzed using path models in Mplus. RESULTS: Our findings showed that all maternal depressive symptoms trajectories increased the frequency of psychological and physical aggression at early adolescence when compared to the reference group. Mediation analysis indicated that maternal depressive symptoms led to low levels of perceived maternal quality of life, which in turn was associated with the increased use of harsh parenting. The proportion of total effect explained by maternal quality of life ranged from 4.04% (0.00%-5.58%) to 16.31% (10.88%-19.10%). CONCLUSION: Our findings support the evidence showing that maternal depressive symptoms are associated with harsh parenting within a longitudinal framework from a middle-income country. Our results also suggest that one mechanism underlying this association is a women's lower perceived quality of life.

Harsh parenting trajectories from childhood through adolescence and socioemotional competences at age 18: 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Limited research has explored the course of harsh parenting practices throughout childhood and adolescence and its impact on socioemotional competences from a longitudinal perspective. This study examined the association between harsh parenting trajectories and socioemotional competences at age 18. METHODS: Data from the 2004 Pelotas (Brazil) Birth Cohort study, originally comprising 4231 live births, were used. Harsh parenting was measured using the parent-report version of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale at ages 6, 11, 15 and 17 years, and trajectories were identified using a group-based modelling approach. Socioemotional competences were emotion regulation, assessed by the Emotional Regulation Index for Children and Adolescents; self-esteem, measured by the self-report Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale; prosocial behaviour and peer relationship problems, both assessed by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Multivariate linear and Poisson regression models were applied to examine the effects of harsh parenting trajectories on socioemotional competences, adjusting for confounding variables. RESULTS: We identified three trajectories: a "low harsh parenting" trajectory (49.7 %), a "moderate harsh parenting" (44.7 %), and a "high harsh parenting" trajectory (5.6 %). Compared to those belonging to the low harsh parenting trajectory group, adolescents who experienced either a moderate or high harsh parenting trajectory exhibited lower scores in emotion regulation, self-esteem, and prosocial behaviour scales, along with higher scores of peer relationships problems. LIMITATIONS: Data on harsh parenting at 15 and 17 years were available only for a sub-sample. CONCLUSIONS: Our study extends the evidence of the adverse effects of persistent harsh parenting on socioemotional competences during adolescence.

Changes of adolescent sleep patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: The COVID-19 pandemic has raised numerous concerns regarding its effects on individuals' health and lifestyle. We aim to analyze potential changes in adolescent sleep patterns from before and during the pandemic and identify specific predictors of changes. METHODS: A subgroup of adolescents from a population-based birth cohort from Pelotas, Brazil, was assessed pre-pandemic (T1, November-2019 to March-2020) and peri-pandemic (T2, August-2021 to December-2021) in in-person interviews (n = 1,949). Sleep parameters, including sleep duration and latency time on workdays and free days, as well as social jetlag (SJL), were assessed using the Munich ChronoType Questionnaire (MCTQ). Socio-demographic, pre-pandemic, and pandemic-related predictors were analyzed. Changes in sleep parameters from T1 to T2 were estimated by multivariate latent change score modeling. RESULTS: The latent change factor shows a significant mean increase in workday sleep duration (M = 0.334, p < 0.001), workday sleep latency (M = 0.029, p = 0.002), and free day sleep latency (M = 0.021, p = 0.034), and a decreased in SJL (M = -0.758, p < 0.001) during the pandemic. Female adolescents presented higher increases in workday sleep duration. Adolescents who adopted a stricter social distancing level during the pandemic presented greater increases in workday sleep duration and smaller reductions in SJL. Self-evaluated insomnia during the pandemic predicted lower increases in workday and free day sleep duration and higher increases in workday and free day sleep latency. CONCLUSION: The COVID-19 outbreak brought certain advantages regarding increased sleep duration and reduced SJL. However, the observed increase in sleep latency and the influence of self-reported insomnia could be related to psychological distress inherent to the pandemic.

Adolescent Mental Health Before and During COVID-19: Longitudinal Evidence From the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort in Brazil.

PURPOSE: There is great interest in examining the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on adolescent mental health, but most studies were conducted in high-income countries. The identification of overall effects and protective factors is essential to understand the determinants of mental wellbeing in contexts of stress. We aimed to study changes in adolescent mental health during the pandemic and the risk and protective factors associated with these changes in a Brazilian birth cohort. METHODS: One thousand nine hundred forty nine adolescents from the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort were assessed prepandemic (T1, November 2019 to March 2020, mean age 15.69 years) and mid-pandemic (T2, August to December 2021, mean age 17.41 years). Mental health was assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Prepandemic and pandemic-related predictors were examined as predictors of change in multivariate latent change scores models. RESULTS: There was a mean increase in adolescent total mental health difficulties (M = 1.071, p < .001), hyperactivity/inattention (M = 0.208, p < .001), emotion symptoms (M = 0.409, p < .001), and peer problems (M = 0.434, p < .001) during the pandemic. This increase was associated with several negative family context variables, including harsh parenting and maternal depressive symptoms at T2. Higher emotion regulation levels protected against increases in adolescent mental health difficulties related to the COVID-19 pandemic. DISCUSSION: Family-context variables emerged as important risk factors for the deterioration of adolescent mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Interventions promoting emotion regulation strategies are a promising approach to protecting adolescent wellbeing in periods of stress.

Changes of adolescent sleep patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE The COVID-19 pandemic has raised numerous concerns regarding its effects on individuals' health and lifestyle. We aim to analyze potential changes in adolescent sleep patterns from before and during the pandemic and identify specific predictors of changes. METHODS A subgroup of adolescents from a population-based birth cohort from Pelotas, Brazil, was assessed pre-pandemic (T1, November-2019 to March-2020) and peri-pandemic (T2, August-2021 to December-2021) in in-person interviews (n = 1,949). Sleep parameters, including sleep duration and latency time on workdays and free days, as well as social jetlag (SJL), were assessed using the Munich ChronoType Questionnaire (MCTQ). Socio-demographic, pre-pandemic, and pandemic-related predictors were analyzed. Changes in sleep parameters from T1 to T2 were estimated by multivariate latent change score modeling. RESULTS The latent change factor shows a significant mean increase in workday sleep duration (M = 0.334, p < 0.001), workday sleep latency (M = 0.029, p = 0.002), and free day sleep latency (M = 0.021, p = 0.034), and a decreased in SJL (M = −0.758, p < 0.001) during the pandemic. Female adolescents presented higher increases in workday sleep duration. Adolescents who adopted a stricter social distancing level during the pandemic presented greater increases in workday sleep duration and smaller reductions in SJL. Self-evaluated insomnia during the pandemic predicted lower increases in workday and free day sleep duration and higher increases in workday and free day sleep latency. CONCLUSION The COVID-19 outbreak brought certain advantages regarding increased sleep duration and reduced SJL. However, the observed increase in sleep latency and the influence of self-reported insomnia could be related to psychological distress inherent to the pandemic.

Pathways from maternal depression to child resilience: Socioeconomic, family, and individual factors in the 2004 Pelotas (Brazil) birth cohort.

Background: The negative impacts of maternal depression on child mental health outcomes are well-documented. However, some children show adaptive functioning following exposure to maternal depression, demonstrating resilience. In a large birth cohort from Brazil, a middle-income country, we examined direct and indirect pathways, considering socioeconomic, family, and individual factors, contributing to the development of resilience. Methods: Using data from the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort (N = 4231), we restricted the sample to those exposed to maternal depression up to age 6 years (depression present at ≥2 out of 5 assessment waves; n = 1132; 50% boys). Resilience was defined as scoring below or equal to the mean of the unexposed group on all four problem subscales of the parent-report Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire at age 11 years. We examined pathways from socioeconomic status (SES; measured at birth) to resilience via cognitive stimulation (CS) (at 24 and 48 months) and Intelligence quotient (IQ) (at 6 years), and from CS to resilience via IQ, using counterfactual mediation. Results: A minority of children exposed to maternal depression showed resilience (12.4%). There was evidence of indirect pathways from SES to resilience via CS (odds ratio (OR) = 1.76, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.02-3.38) and IQ (OR = 1.19, 95% CI 1.01-1.42), such that higher SES was associated with resilience via both higher levels of CS and higher IQ, which, in turn, were each positively associated with resilience. Furthermore, there was evidence of a direct (OR = 1.86, 95% CI 1.01-3.76) and total effect (OR = 1.94, 95% CI 1.05-3.89) of CS on resilience, even after controlling for SES. However, these effects varied depending on how persistent and severe depression was defined. Conclusions: These findings suggest that CS in early childhood may represent a modifiable protective factor for children exposed to maternal depression and a promising intervention target to promote child resilience in the context of maternal depression exposure.

Changes and predictors of adolescent emotion regulation, self-esteem, and locus of control during the COVID-19 pandemic: 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort

Objectives: There is growing interest in examining the impacts of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on adolescent socioemotional development. This study aimed to examine changes in adolescent emotion regulation (ER), self-esteem (SE), and locus of control (LoC) from before to during the pandemic in a Brazilian birth cohort, and to investigate the variables associated with changes in those socioemotional competences. Methods: 1,949 adolescents from the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort were assessed before (T1, November 2019 to March 2020) and during (T2, August to December 2021) the COVID-19 pandemic (mean ages [SD] = 15.69 [0.19] and 17.41 [0.26], respectively). Adolescents' socioemotional competences were assessed, including ER, SE, and LoC. Sociodemographic, pre-pandemic, and pandemic-related correlates were examined as predictors of change. Multivariate latent change score models were used in the analyses. Results: There were significant mean increases in adolescents' ER and SE (mean ER = 1.918, p < 0.001; mean SE = 1.561, p = 0.001) and a significant mean decrease (towards internalization) in LoC levels (MLoC = -0.497, p < 0.01) during the pandemic. Factors that predicted a lower competency increase included family conflicts, harsh parenting, and maternal depressive symptoms during the pandemic. Conclusion: Despite the stress imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, the adolescents of this cohort showed positive development in their socioemotional competences. Family-related factors emerged as important predictors of adolescent socioemotional adjustment during the study period.

Changes and predictors of adolescent emotion regulation, self-esteem, and locus of control during the COVID-19 pandemic: 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort.

OBJECTIVES: There is growing interest in examining the impacts of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on adolescent socioemotional development. This study aimed to examine changes in adolescent emotion regulation (ER), self-esteem (SE), and locus of control (LoC) from before to during the pandemic in a Brazilian birth cohort, and to investigate the variables associated with changes in those socioemotional competences. METHODS: 1,949 adolescents from the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort were assessed before (T1, November 2019 to March 2020) and during (T2, August to December 2021) the COVID-19 pandemic (mean ages [SD] = 15.69 [0.19] and 17.41 [0.26], respectively). Adolescents' socioemotional competences were assessed, including ER, SE, and LoC. Sociodemographic, pre-pandemic, and pandemic-related correlates were examined as predictors of change. Multivariate latent change score models were used in the analyses. RESULTS: There were significant mean increases in adolescents' ER and SE (mean ER = 1.918, p < 0.001; mean SE = 1.561, p = 0.001) and a significant mean decrease (towards internalization) in LoC levels (MLoC = -0.497, p < 0.01) during the pandemic. Factors that predicted a lower competency increase included family conflicts, harsh parenting, and maternal depressive symptoms during the pandemic. CONCLUSION: Despite the stress imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, the adolescents of this cohort showed positive development in their socioemotional competences. Family-related factors emerged as important predictors of adolescent socioemotional adjustment during the study period.

Prevalence of adolescent risk behaviors at 11 and 15 years of age: data from the 2004 Pelotas birth cohort

Objectives: The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence of the following risk behaviors: experimentation with cigarettes, electronic cigarettes, alcohol, substances, delinquent behavior, and sex at age 15, stratified by sex and socioeconomic position. We also investigated the prevalence of cigarette and alcohol experimentation at age 11 and the persistence and cumulative incidence of these behaviors between 11 and 15 years of age. Methods: In this cohort study, we included 3,491 11-year-olds and 1,949 15-year-olds from the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort. All outcomes were identified via confidential questionnaires and were analyzed as binary variables. Results: At age 11, there was a higher prevalence of cigarette experimentation among boys. At age 15, there was a higher prevalence of experimentation with alcohol, cigarettes, and substances among girls; experimentation with cigarettes and sex were more prevalent among those in a low socioeconomic position. We found a high cumulative incidence of alcohol experimentation, as well as persistent alcohol experimentation, in both boys and girls. Conclusions: Further research should clarify causal paths of the high prevalence of risk behaviors during adolescence and its increase among girls.

Prevalence of adolescent risk behaviors at 11 and 15 years of age: data from the 2004 Pelotas birth cohort.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence of the following risk behaviors: experimentation with cigarettes, electronic cigarettes, alcohol, substances, delinquent behavior, and sex at age 15, stratified by sex and socioeconomic position. We also investigated the prevalence of cigarette and alcohol experimentation at age 11 and the persistence and cumulative incidence of these behaviors between 11 and 15 years of age. METHODS: In this cohort study, we included 3,491 11-year-olds and 1,949 15-year-olds from the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort. All outcomes were identified via confidential questionnaires and were analyzed as binary variables. RESULTS: At age 11, there was a higher prevalence of cigarette experimentation among boys. At age 15, there was a higher prevalence of experimentation with alcohol, cigarettes, and substances among girls; experimentation with cigarettes and sex were more prevalent among those in a low socioeconomic position. We found a high cumulative incidence of alcohol experimentation, as well as persistent alcohol experimentation, in both boys and girls. CONCLUSION: Further research should clarify causal paths of the high prevalence of risk behaviors during adolescence and its increase among girls.

Maternal depression trajectories in childhood, subsequent maltreatment, and adolescent emotion regulation and self-esteem: the 2004 Pelotas birth cohort.

This study aimed to examine the impact of maternal depressive symptoms trajectories on 15-year-old adolescents' self-esteem and emotion regulation and test the mediating role of child maltreatment in this association. The 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort is an ongoing cohort study originally comprised of 4231 live births in a southern Brazilian city. We examined a subsample of 1949 adolescents at age 15 years. Maternal depressive symptoms were assessed using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Trajectories of maternal depression from 3 months until the 11-year follow-up were calculated using a group-based modeling approach. Child maltreatment at age 11 years was measured using the parent-report version of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale. Adolescent outcomes at age 15 years were assessed by the self-report version of the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and the Emotion Regulation Index for Children and Adolescents. Path model analysis was conducted using a structural equation modeling framework in Mplus software. All maternal depression trajectories were negatively associated with offspring self-esteem and emotion regulation compared to the reference group (low depression trajectory). There was a significant indirect effect of maternal depression trajectories on emotion regulation mediated via child maltreatment. No evidence of moderation by sex was found for any pathway. The effects of maternal depression on adolescents' emotion regulation are partly mediated by child maltreatment at age 11.

Depression moderates the association between pregnancy and suicidal ideation among pregnant and non-pregnant reproductive age women in Brazil.

Background: Maternal mental health problems are a serious public health concern. Previous data reported that pregnancy might have a protective effect against suicide. In contrast, more recent studies suggested that the prevalence of suicidal ideation (SI) is higher among pregnant women compared to the general population. Using a nationally representative population-based sample of Brazilian reproductive-aged women, this study aims to assess whether SI is more prevalent among pregnant women in comparison with nonpregnant woman. Methods: We used data from the Brazilian National Health Survey (PNS) of 2019, a cross-sectional study that comprised a representative sample of residents in private households in Brazil. For the analysis of this study, we selected women aged between 15 and 49 years old who have answered the questionnaire of the Selected Resident of the PNS, which comprised a sample of 27,249 women. Logistic regression models were performed to obtain crude and adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) for the association between pregnancy status and SI. Results: The prevalence of SI during pregnancy was 6.8% (95% CI: 6.2-7.4). The association between pregnancy status and SI was modified according to the recent clinical diagnosis of depression (interaction term: OR = 41.72, 95% CI: 5.64-308.45, p < 0.001). Our findings indicated that among nondepressed women, pregnancy status seems to decrease the probability of SI. Additionally, SI is associated with a vulnerable profile that includes being an adolescent, having an unpartnered/not married status, lower family income, lower education, and a recent clinical diagnosis of depression. Conclusion: SI is a common problem for reproductive-age women. In the presence of a recent depression clinical diagnosis, pregnancy increases the risk of SI. Management of SI among pregnant women should correctly identify sociodemographic risk factors and the presence of a recent clinical diagnosis of depression.

Trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms and offspring's risk behavior in early adolescence: data from the 2004 Pelotas birth cohort study.

BACKGROUND: This longitudinal study explored the relationship between trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms and offspring's risk behavior in adolescence contributing to an extremely scarce literature about the impacts of maternal depression trajectories on offspring risk behaviors. METHODS: We included 3437 11-year-old adolescents from the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort Study. Trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms were constructed using Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EDPS) from age 3 months to 11 years. We identified five trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms: "low" "moderate low", "increasing", "decreasing", and "chronic high". The following adolescent outcomes were identified via self-report questionnaire and analyzed as binary outcome -yes/no: involvement in fights and alcohol use at age 11. We used logistic regression models to examine the effects of trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms on offspring's risk behavior adjusting for potential confounding variable. RESULTS: Alcohol use and/or abuse as well as involvement in fights during adolescence, were not significantly associated with any specific trajectory of maternal depressive symptoms neither in the crude nor in the adjusted analyses. CONCLUSION: Alcohol use and involvement in fights at age 11 were not associated with any specific trajectory of maternal depression.

Maternal depression trajectories and offspring positive attributes and social aptitudes at early adolescence: 2004 Pelotas birth cohort.

There is growing evidence that adolescent positive attributes and social aptitudes are associated with beneficial outcomes, including higher educational attainment and lower risk of later psychiatric disorder. Although maternal depression is a well-known risk factor for a variety of offspring adverse outcomes, less is known on its repercussion on children's positive behavioral traits. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of maternal depression trajectories on offspring positive attributes and social aptitudes, testing sex-moderated models for the studied association. The 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort is an ongoing cohort originally comprised by 4231 live births from Brazil. We included 3465 11-year-old adolescents (48.6% female; maternal self-reported skin color: 27.0% non-white). Maternal depressive symptoms were assessed by the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) at all follow-ups. Adolescent positive attributes and social aptitudes were ascertained by specific subscales of Development and Well-Being Assessment (DAWBA). Multivariate linear regression was used to examine the effect of maternal depression trajectories on offspring's outcomes, adjusting for potential confounding variables. Moderation was assessed with interaction terms. Adolescents from mothers who presented high-chronic levels of depressive symptoms during offspring's life have lower scores of positive attributes and social aptitudes. Boys exposed to maternal depression during their lifetime are more affected than girls regarding positive attributes, but this sex difference was not observed for social aptitudes. Interventions targeting the promotion of adaptive behavioral traits may represent an effective way to buffer the adverse impact of maternal depression on offspring development, especially for vulnerable groups such as male adolescents.

Early child stimulation and attention-related executive functions at 11 years: 2004 Pelotas birth cohort study.

The study aimed to explore associations between socioeconomic position (SEP) indicators, early child stimulation (ECS) and attention-related executive functions (EF) at age 11. Children born in Pelotas, Brazil, in 2004, were recruited to a birth cohort (n = 4231, non-response rate at recruitment < 1%) and followed from birth to age 11. SEP variables were family income and maternal schooling. At the 24 and 48-month follow-ups, five markers of cognitive stimulation and social interaction were recorded and positive answers were summed to a score ranging from 0 to 5. At age 11, attentional-switching and control, and selective-attention were assessed using the adapted Test-of-Everyday-Attention-for-Children (TEA-Ch). We used multivariable logistic regression models and mediation analysis to investigate potential mediator role of ECS in the association between SEP and EF. 3106 children were included in the analyses. Less than 7% of the more stimulated individuals showed low performance in attention-related EFs at age 11 compared with almost 20% in the bottom groups of stimulation. Higher child stimulation scores were associated with fewer impairments in attentional-control (OR adj 0.84; CI 95% 0.72-0.98) and attentional-switching (OR adj 0.85; CI 95% 0.73-0.99). Mediation analysis suggested that for attentional-switching, ECS mediated almost 20% of the total protective effect of maternal schooling for impaired EF. Assuming causal relationships, if maximum stimulation was provided to all children, the advantageous effect of maternal schooling on EF would be reduced by 47%. ECS may represent a protective factor for cognitive impairments in childhood and can be easily implemented at relatively low cost.

Impact of maternal depression trajectories on offspring socioemotional competences at age 11: 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort.

BACKGROUND: Maternal depression is associated with impairments in child behavioural and emotional development, although the effect of exposure to maternal depression until adolescence is underexplored in most studies. This longitudinal study examined the association between maternal depressive symptoms trajectories and offspring socioemotional competences at age 11. METHODS: We included 3,437 11-year-old adolescents from the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort Study. Maternal depressive symptoms were assessed during the follow-up waves. Adolescent socioemotional competences were peer relationship problems and prosocial behaviour, both assessed by Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), and Locus of Control (LoC), assessed by Nowick-Strickland Internal-External Scale. We used multivariate linear and logistic regression models to examine the effects of maternal depression trajectories on offspring's socioemotional competences, adjusting for potential confounding variables. RESULTS: We identified five trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms: a "low" trajectory (32.6%), a "moderate low" (42.2%), a "increasing" (11.1%), a "decreasing" (9.2%), and a "high-chronic" trajectory (4.9%). Adolescents whose mothers had persistent depressive symptoms, either intermediate or high, had greater levels of peer relationship problems and lower levels of prosocial behaviour than those whose mothers had low depressive symptoms. These differences were not explained by socioeconomic, maternal, and child characteristics. Maternal depressive symptoms during offspring's life was not a predictor of LoC orientation. LIMITATIONS: Nearly 20% of original cohort were not included in the analysis due to missing data. Adolescent's socioemotional competences were ascertained by maternal report. CONCLUSION: Our study extended the evidences of the negative impact of severe and recurrent maternal depression on offspring's socioemotional competences until early adolescence.

Effects of emulsifier addition on the crystallization and melting behavior of palm olein and coconut oil.

Two commercial emulsifiers (EM1 and EM2), containing predominantly monoacylglycerols (MAGs), were added in proportiond of 1.0 and 3.0% (w/w) to coconut oil and palm olein. EM1 consisted of approximately 90% MAGs, whereas EM2 consisted of approximately 50% MAGs. The crystallization behavior of these systems was evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and microscopy under polarized light. On the basis of DSC results, it was clear that the addition of EM2 accelerated the crystallization of coconut oil and delayed the crystallization of palm olein. In both oils EM2 addition led to the formation of smaller spherulites, and these effects improved the possibilities for using these fats as ingredients. In coconut oil the spherulites were maintained even at higher temperatures (20 °C). The addition of EM1 to coconut oil changed the crystallization pattern. In palm olein, the addition of 3.0% (w/w) of this emulsifier altered the pattern of crystallization of this fat.

Chemical interesterification of blends of palm stearin, coconut oil, and canola oil: physicochemical properties.

trans-Free interesterified fat was produced for possible usage as a margarine. Palm stearin, coconut oil, and canola oil were used as substrates for chemical interesterification. The main aim of the present study was to evaluate the physicochemical properties of blends of palm stearin, coconut oil, and canola oil submitted to chemical interesterification using sodium methoxide as the catalyst. The original and interesterified blends were examined for fatty acid composition, softening and melting points, solid fat content, and consistency. Chemical interesterification reduced softening and melting points, consistency, and solid fat content. The interesterified fats showed desirable physicochemical properties for possible use as a margarine. Therefore, our result suggested that the interesterified fat without trans-fatty acids could be used as an alternative to partially hydrogenated fat.