The Importance of Being Consistent: Attribution of Mental States in Strategic Human-Robot Interactions.

This article investigates the attribution of mental state (AMS) to an anthropomorphic robot by humans in a strategic interaction. We conducted an experiment in which human subjects are paired with either a human or an anthropomorphic robot to play an iterated Prisoner's Dilemma game, and we tested whether AMS is dependent on the robot "consistency," that is, the correspondence between the robot's verbal reaction and its behavior after a nonoptimal social outcome of the game is obtained. We find that human partners are attributed a higher mental state level than robotic partners, regardless of the partner's consistency between words and actions. Conversely, the level of AMS assigned to the robot is significantly higher when the robot is consistent in its words and actions. This finding is robust to the inclusion of psychological factors such as risk attitude and trust, and it holds regardless of subjects' initial beliefs about the adaptability of the robot. Finally, we find that when the robot apologizes for its behavior and defects in the following stage, the epistemic component of the AMS significantly increases.

Ageing society and the challenge for social robotics: A systematic review of Socially Assistive Robotics for MCI patients.

The aging population in Western countries has led to a rise in predementia conditions like Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). Social Assistive Robotics (SAR) interventions, among novel technological tools, offer a promising interdisciplinary approach to mitigate cognitive and social symptoms' progression in this clinical group. This systematic review aims to identify existing clinical protocols employing social robots for treating cognitive and social cognition skills in individuals with MCI. The review protocol adheres to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. From six databases, we retrieved and analyzed 193 articles, of which 19 met the inclusion criteria, featuring samples diagnosed with MCI and subjected to cognitive and/or social interventions through SAR. The review encompasses both qualitative and quantitative studies, with a focus on assessing bias risk. Articles were categorized into four primary areas: study participants' samples, types of robots and programming used, assessment of cognitive abilities, and the nature of interventions (i.e., cognitive and and social cognition skills). While the findings highlight the potential benefits of using SAR for MCI interventions in both cognitive and social cognition domains, the studies primarily emphasized robot acceptability rather than intervention outcomes. Methodological limitations such as clinical heterogeneity, absence of control groups, and non-standardized assessments restrict the generalizability of these findings. This review underscores the promising role of Social Assistive Robotics in MCI interventions, emphasizing the importance of social cognition skills interventions and advocating for increased collaboration between clinicians and robotic researchers to overcome current limitations and enhance future outcomes.

Feeling connected to nature: validation of the connectedness to nature scale in the Italian context.

Environmental issues are at the center of the political and cultural debate, representing one of the greatest challenges of our century. Sustainability and pro-environmental conducts are recognized as increasingly urgent to address the decay of ecosystems. To support the acquisition of attitudes that give greater consideration to environmental issues, experiencing a sense of connection with nature has been acknowledged in psychology as a particularly relevant individual component. Among the most commonly used scales in Anglo-Saxon context to analyses this feeling is the Connectedness to Nature Scale (CNS) assessing the emotional and experiential bond between humans and nature. To examine the reliability and validity of this scale in the Italian context, a study including 271 Italian adults (44,3% female; 55% males; Mean age = 34.70; SD = 13.584; age-range = 18-65 years) was conducted to establish evidence supporting the internal consistency of the CNS, as well as its ability to measure convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis showed that CNS in Italian has a single-factor structure as reported in the original version by Mayer and Frantz. Furthermore, as expected, positive correlations were observed between the CNS and pro-environmental attitudes and negative correlations with civic moral disengagement. Finally, as assumed, the CNS positively correlated with mental well-being. A broad vision of this study concerns the idea that individuals who have a stronger connection with nature are likely to exhibit reduced tendencies to cause harm to it.

A cultural training for the improvement of cognitive and affective Theory of Mind in people with Multiple Sclerosis: a pilot randomized controlled study.

Theory of Mind (ToM), the ability to understand and attribute mental states to ourselves and others, could be impaired in Multiple Sclerosis (MS), a neurodegenerative disease affecting young adults. Considering that ToM is strictly connected to Quality of Life (QoL) in MS and that could enhance the social support network -which is particularly important for this population-, we aimed to design and implement a novel ToM rehabilitation training. To make the training as much ecological as possible, we have devised a protocol enhancing ToM through stimuli depicting real-world conditions (video-clips taken from cinema movies, literary fictions, and audio voices). We test training's effect on both cognitive and affective components of ToM in a sample of 13 subjects, randomly assigned to the ToM training Group and to the Control Group. The following ToM tasks were administered: the Reading the Mind in the Eyes (RMET), the Strange Stories task, the Faux Pas Task and the False Belief First- and Second - Order Task (FB II and III order). We also administered a psycho-behavioral assessment through the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). Results show that our novel ToM training is useful in enhancing ToM abilities measured by the following tasks: the RMET (affective task, p = 0.015) and the FB II-order task (FB, cognitive task, p = 0.032). Our ToM training had also a significant effect on the total score of the TAS-20 Scale (p = 0.018) and on its "Difficulty Describing Feelings subscale" (p = 0.018), indicating a reduction of the alexithymia traits. Future works with larger samples could investigate the ToM training effectiveness in a more representative MS populations.

Virtual agents and risk-taking behavior in adolescence: the twofold nature of nudging.

Peer pressure can influence risk-taking behavior and it is particularly felt during adolescence. With artificial intelligence (AI) increasingly present in a range of everyday human contexts, including virtual environments, it is important to examine whether AI can have an impact on human's decision making processes and behavior. By using the balloon analogue risk task (BART) evaluating propensity to take risk, in this study 113 adolescents' risk-taking behavior was measured when playing alone and in the presence of either a robot avatar or human avatar. In the avatar conditions, participants performed the BART while the avatars either (1) verbally incited risk-taking or (2) discouraged risk-taking (experimental tasks). Risk-taking behavior in the BART was assessed in terms of total number of pumps, gain and explosions. Tendency to impulsivity was also evaluated, as well as the effects of age and gender on risky behavior. The main finding showed a significant effect of both avatars on risk-taking tendency, with riskier behavior during incitement than discouragement conditions, the latter being also substantially different from the playing-alone condition. The results of this study open up new questions in a very sensitive and timely topic and offer various insights into the effect of nudging on adolescents' behavior in virtual contexts.

Development and validation of the Attribution of Mental States Questionnaire (AMS-Q): A reference tool for assessing anthropomorphism.

Attributing mental states to others, such as feelings, beliefs, goals, desires, and attitudes, is an important interpersonal ability, necessary for adaptive relationships, which underlies the ability to mentalize. To evaluate the attribution of mental and sensory states, a new 23-item measure, the Attribution of Mental States Questionnaire (AMS-Q), has been developed. The present study aimed to investigate the dimensionality of the AMS-Q and its psychometric proprieties in two studies. Study 1 focused on the development of the questionnaire and its factorial structure in a sample of Italian adults (N = 378). Study 2 aimed to confirm the findings in a new sample (N = 271). Besides the AMS-Q, Study 2 included assessments of Theory of Mind (ToM), mentalization, and alexithymia. A Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and a Parallel Analysis (PA) of the data from Study 1 yielded three factors assessing mental states with positive or neutral valence (AMS-NP), mental states with negative valence (AMS-N), and sensory states (AMS-S). These showed satisfactory reliability indexes. AMS-Q's whole-scale internal consistency was excellent. Multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) further confirmed the three-factor structure. The AMS-Q subscales also showed a consistent pattern of correlation with associated constructs in the theoretically predicted ways, relating positively to ToM and mentalization and negatively to alexithymia. Thus, the questionnaire is considered suitable to be easily administered and sensitive for assessing the attribution of mental and sensory states to humans. The AMS-Q can also be administered with stimuli of nonhuman agents (e.g., animals, inanimate things, and even God); this allows the level of mental anthropomorphization of other agents to be assessed using the human as a term of comparison, providing important hints in the perception of nonhuman entities as more or less mentalistic compared to human beings, and identifying what factors are required for the attribution of human mental traits to nonhuman agents, further helping to delineate the perception of others' minds.

Is Aesthetic Good? A Study on the Aesthetic and Vitality Judgment of Pictorial Representations of the Dead, Saints and Non-Saints.

In the history of the Western world, there has always been an association between good and beautiful. Starting from a brief history of beauty, two questions arise: is beauty linked to good even in art? How important are people's religious beliefs in aesthetic and vitality judgments? The psychology of art could answer these questions by studying people's reactions to the images of Saints as testimonials of goodness. Moreover, the study of Saints' paintings would allow us to investigate vitality, understood as one's perception of a living being. The research aimed to investigate the aesthetic and vitality judgments of faces representing the dead, Saints and non-Saints. More than a hundred participants were asked to evaluate the aesthetics and vitality of these paintings; moreover, two tests assessing spirituality and religiosity were administered. Overall, these data suggest Saints were judged more beautiful than non-Saints, and non-Saints were judged more vital than Saints. This might suggest a relationship between ethics and aesthetics, also in the perception of art, and offers reflections on the theme of vitality. The religion and spirituality of participants are not correlated to aesthetic or vitality judgments; this fact could support that these judgments are linked to the basic bottom-up reactions to images.

Italian adaptation of the Edinburgh Social Cognition Test (ESCoT): A new tool for the assessment of theory of mind and social norm understanding.

The relevance of social cognition assessment has been formally described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5. However, social cognition tools evaluating different socio-cognitive components for Italian-speaking populations are lacking. The Edinburgh Social Cognition Test (ESCoT) is a new social cognition measure that uses animations of everyday social interactions to assess (i) cognitive theory of mind, (ii) affective theory of mind, (iii) interpersonal social norm understanding, and (iv) intrapersonal social norm understanding. Previous studies have shown that the ESCoT is a sensitive measure of social cognition in healthy and clinical populations in the United Kingdom. This work aimed to adapt and validate the ESCoT in an Italian population of healthy adults. A translation-back-translation procedure was followed to create and refine the Italian version. Then, 94 healthy adults (47 females, mean age 35 ± 15.9) completed the ESCoT, a battery of conventional social cognition tests (Yoni; Reading the Mind in the Eyes Strange Stories, and Social Norm Questionnaire, SNQ) and measures of intelligence and executive functions. Reliability, convergent validity, and predictors of performance on the ESCoT were examined. Results demonstrated good reliability of the ESCoT and an association between the ESCoT scores and some traditional social cognition tests (Yoni cognitive subscale, SNQ). Hierarchical regression results showed that the ESCoT total score was associated with age. Also, the ESCoT subscore (intrapersonal social norm understanding) was associated with education. These findings support the ESCoT as a valid tool testing social norm understanding, a reliable measure of social cognition for an adult Italian population, and provides further evidence that the ESCoT is sensitive to age- and education-related changes in social cognition, and it is a task not affected by general cognitive functioning.

Children's representations of the COVID-19 lockdown and pandemic through drawings.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the measures to face it have placed children and their caregivers in front of many challenges that could represent sources of stress. This work aims to explore the point of view of children through drawing, as a spontaneous means of expression, relating it to parents' perceptions of children's difficulties, strengths, and mentalization skills. The sample consists of 18 children (mean age = 8.22, SD = 1.79). Parents were asked to complete: a socio-demographic questionnaire with information on the impact of COVID-19 on the family, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, and the Everyday Mindreading Scale. Children were asked to draw three moments: "Before" the pandemic, "During" the lockdown, and "After," when the COVID-19 will be passed. The drawings were coded by constructing a content and expressive analysis grid, adapting coding systems found in the literature. Data were collected at the beginning of the summer of 2020, just after the first lockdown period (from March to May 2020 in Italy). The results of the present work are in line with previous studies that reported experiences of wellbeing and tranquility of children in time spent at home with family during the pandemic. From the drawings emerges that children feel sufficiently able to master the situation, as reflected by including themselves in drawings and providing many details of the house in "During" drawings. The literature also reports a feeling of sadness/loneliness caused by the lack of friends, an element that we also find in the tendency to represent friends significantly more in the drawings concerning the future. Some contents of drawings (inclusion of friends, relatives, and parents) appeared associated with emotional, interpersonal, and mentalizing abilities of children, as perceived by parents. Exploring children's representations of a stressful event like the pandemic through drawings allows to focus both on their difficulties and on their resources, with useful implications for the educational support.

Supporting mentalizing in primary school children: the effects of thoughts in mind project for children (TiM-C) on metacognition, emotion regulation and theory of mind.

Mentalization is a useful ability for social functioning and a crucial aspect of mentalizing is emotion regulation. Literature suggests programmes for children and adults to increase mentalizing abilities useful both for emotional and social competences. For this reason, the issue of how to prompt children's mentalization has started to attract researchers' attention, supporting the importance of the interpersonal dimension for the individual differences in the developmental of mentalization. The TiM (Thoughts in Mind) Project, a training programme based on the explanation of mentalization mechanisms and designed for adults, deals with emotion regulation. Starting from the TiM Project, this study tests the effects of the TiM Child (TiM-C) training programme, over a control training programme, a conversational training designed for the school context, in children attending Year 2 of primary school. We designed a training based on narratives, followed by multiple-choice questions and conversations about mental states. Our results revealed significant improvements over the training period only in the TiM-C Project group for Metacognition, Emotion Regulation Strategies and a Theory of Mind task. As far as the educational implications, our findings suggest that it is possible to enhance mentalization through activities at school by promoting not only the understanding of the relations between mind and emotion, but also metacognitive skills.

Resting-state functional brain connectivity for human mentalizing: biobehavioral mechanisms of theory of mind in multiple sclerosis.

Although neural hubs of mentalizing are acknowledged, the brain mechanisms underlying mentalizing deficit, characterizing different neurological conditions, are still a matter of debate. To investigate the neural underpinning of theory of mind (ToM) deficit in multiple sclerosis (MS), a region of interest (ROI)-based resting-state fMRI study was proposed. In total, 37 MS patients (23 females, mean age = 54.08 ± 11.37 years, median Expanded Disability Status Scale = 6.00) underwent an MRI and a neuro-psychosocial examination and were compared with 20 sex-age-education matched healthy subjects. A neuroanatomical ToM model was constructed deriving 11 bilateral ROIs and then between and within-functional connectivity (FCs) were assessed to test for group differences. Correlation with psychosocial scores was also investigated. Lower ToM performance was registered for MS both in cognitive and affective ToM, significantly associated with processing speed. A disconnection between limbic-paralimbic network and prefrontal execution loops was observed. A trend of aberrant intrinsic connectivity in MS within the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) was also reported. Finally, a correlation between cognitive ToM and intrinsic FC was detected in ACC and dorsal striatum, belonging to the limbic-paralimbic network, likely explaining the behavioral deficit in MS. The results suggest that aberrant intrinsic and extrinsic connectivity constitutes a crucial neural mechanism underlying ToM deficit in MS.

A New Perspective on the Role of Self-Confidence and Confidence in the Evaluation and Rehabilitation of Children With Adverse Life Experience and Borderline Intellectual Functioning: A Preliminary Study.

The borderline intellectual functioning (BIF) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by a borderline intelligence quotient (range 70-85) with difficulties in cognitive and social domains. Children with BIF often live in adverse conditions and show academic and behavioral difficulties. Rehabilitation programs for these children focus mainly on cognitive aspects, sometimes with the aid of new technologies that are able to engage and motivate. In this framework, the affective development of children with BIF and its possible role both in the difficulties they manifest and in the rehabilitation is still poorly investigated. In this work, we investigate the characteristics of the internal working models of these children by applying the separation anxiety test, using both the classical and a new coding system to identify the specific features of the attachment representation. Results delineate a profile characterized by low self-confidence and high separation anxiety, with a tendency to somatization. In the light of these results, we suggest that this attachment profile has an impact on the therapeutic relationships and on the efficacy in the use of technological devices. We propose a new perspective in which the interpersonal relationship with the psychologist and the support of the self-confidence of children are crucial to treating cognitive and behavioral difficulties in children with BIF. Only in this case, the use of new technologies and tools may be effective in promoting the greatest possible benefit from therapeutic interventions.

Machines Like Us and People Like You: Toward Human-Robot Shared Experience.

In the past years, the field of collaborative robots has been developing fast, with applications ranging from health care to search and rescue, construction, entertainment, sports, and many others. However, current social robotics is still far from the general abilities we expect in a robot collaborator. This limitation is more evident when robots are faced with real-life contexts and activities occurring over long periods. In this article, we argue that human-robot collaboration is more than just being able to work side by side on complementary tasks: collaboration is a complex relational process that entails mutual understanding and reciprocal adaptation. Drawing on this assumption, we propose to shift the focus from "human-robot interaction" to "human-robot shared experience." We hold that for enabling the emergence of such shared experiential space between humans and robots, constructs such as coadaptation, intersubjectivity, individual differences, and identity should become the central focus of modeling. Finally, we suggest that this shift in perspective would imply changing current mainstream design approaches, which are mainly focused on functional aspects of the human-robot interaction, to the development of architectural frameworks that integrate the enabling dimensions of social cognition.

Emerging Adults' Expectations About the Next Generation of Robots: Exploring Robotic Needs Through a Latent Profile Analysis.

The investigation of emerging adults' expectations of development of the next generation of robots is a fundamental challenge to narrow the gap between expectations and real technological advances, which can potentially impact the effectiveness of future interactions between humans and robots. Furthermore, the literature highlights the important role played by negative attitudes toward robots in setting people's expectations. To better explore these expectations, we administered the Scale for Robotic Needs and performed a latent profile analysis to describe different expectation profiles about the development of future robots. The profiles identified through this methodology can be placed along a continuum of robots' humanization: from a group that desires mainly the technical features to a group that imagines a humanized robot in the future. Finally, the analysis of emerging adults' knowledge about robots and their negative attitudes toward robots allowed us to understand how these affect their expectations.

Learning to Wait and Be Altruistic: Testing A Conversational Training in Economic Education for Primary School Children.

Individual economic competence is important but increasingly challenging to manage due to the growing complexity of the nature of economic decisions people must make and the substantial impacts of some of these decisions on their lives. Decision-making ability develops from childhood and is closely related to specific economic components and prosocial behaviour such as fairness, altruism, and delay of gratification. However, while there are financial-education programs for children and young people focusing on financial products, few studies have examined training for the psychological abilities underlying economic decision-making. To promote those psychological skills that contribute to a more socially effective decision-making, we designed and tested a conversational-based training program for primary school children using reflective thinking. A total of 110 (male = 47, female = 63) children aged 8 to 10 years (Mean age = 9.71 years) from two schools in Northern Italy participated in the study with 55 children in a training group and 55 in a control group. All participated in pre-tests measuring their socio-economic background and economics-related skills and abilities. The training group were told stories relaying values of fairness, altruism, and delayed gratification. Both groups participated in task-based post-tests relating to fairness, altruism, and delayed gratification. Results revealed that children in the training group showed significant improvement at the post-test in altruistic and investment behaviour, showing the training efficacy, suggesting that similar programs could be implemented in primary schools as foundational teaching of economics and fiscal responsibility.

Robots Are Not All the Same: Young Adults' Expectations, Attitudes, and Mental Attribution to Two Humanoid Social Robots.

The human physical resemblance of humanoid social robots (HRSs) has proven to be particularly effective in interactions with humans in different contexts. In particular, two main factors affect the quality of human-robot interaction, the physical appearance and the behaviors performed by the robot. In this study, we examined the psychological effect of two HRSs, NAO and Pepper. Although some studies have shown that these two robots are very similar in terms of the human likeness, other evidence has shown some differences in their design affecting different psychological elements of the human partner. The present study aims to analyze the variability of the attributions of mental states (AMS), expectations of robotic development and negative attitudes as a function of the physical appearance of two HRSs after observing a real interaction with a human (an experimenter). For this purpose, two groups of young adults were recruited, one for the NAO (N = 100, M = 20.22) and the other for the Pepper (N = 74, M = 21.76). The results showed that both the observation of interaction and the type of robot affect the AMS, with a greater AMS to Pepper robot compared to NAO. People's expectations, instead, are influenced by the interaction and are independent of the type of robot. Finally, negative attitudes are independent of both the interaction and the type of robot. The study showed that also subtle differences in the physical appearance of HSRs have significant effects on how humans perceived robots.

A Robot Is Not Worth Another: Exploring Children's Mental State Attribution to Different Humanoid Robots.

Recent technological developments in robotics has driven the design and production of different humanoid robots. Several studies have highlighted that the presence of human-like physical features could lead both adults and children to anthropomorphize the robots. In the present study we aimed to compare the attribution of mental states to two humanoid robots, NAO and Robovie, which differed in the degree of anthropomorphism. Children aged 5, 7, and 9 years were required to attribute mental states to the NAO robot, which presents more human-like characteristics compared to the Robovie robot, whose physical features look more mechanical. The results on mental state attribution as a function of children's age and robot type showed that 5-year-olds have a greater tendency to anthropomorphize robots than older children, regardless of the type of robot. Moreover, the findings revealed that, although children aged 7 and 9 years attributed a certain degree of human-like mental features to both robots, they attributed greater mental states to NAO than Robovie compared to younger children. These results generally show that children tend to anthropomorphize humanoid robots that also present some mechanical characteristics, such as Robovie. Nevertheless, age-related differences showed that they should be endowed with physical characteristics closely resembling human ones to increase older children's perception of human likeness. These findings have important implications for the design of robots, which also needs to consider the user's target age, as well as for the generalizability issue of research findings that are commonly associated with the use of specific types of robots.