Quality of antenatal and childbirth care in selected rural health facilities in Burkina Faso, Ghana and Tanzania: similar finding.

OBJECTIVES: To measure pre-intervention quality of routine antenatal and childbirth care in rural districts of Burkina Faso, Ghana and Tanzania and to identify shortcomings. METHODS: In each country, we selected two adjoining rural districts. Within each district, we randomly sampled 6 primary healthcare facilities. Quality of care was assessed through health facility surveys, direct observation of antenatal and childbirth care, exit interviews and review of patient records. RESULTS: By and large, quality of antenatal and childbirth care in the six districts was satisfactory, but we did identify some critical gaps common to the study sites in all three countries. Counselling and health education practices are poor; laboratory investigations are often not performed; examination and monitoring of mother and newborn during childbirth are inadequate; partographs are not used. Equipment required to provide assisted vaginal deliveries (vacuum extractor or forceps) was absent in all surveyed facilities. CONCLUSION: Quality of care in the three study sites can be improved with the available human resources and without major investments. This improvement could reduce maternal and neonatal mortality and morbidity.

Setting an emergency obstetric care unit local initiatives, availability of resources and good will are the main ingredients of success: a lesson from Mkuranga District Hospital, Tanzania.

OBJECTIVE: Mkuranga District Hospital is 50 km South of Dar-Es-Salaam city serving a population of about 196,000. Before June 2004, all obstetric patients with complications from this district were referred to Dar-Es-Salaam as the hospital had no comprehensive emergency obstetric care (CEmOC) skilled personnel. In June 2004, a project was started using local manpower and resources to impart knowledge for CEmOC. The aim was to reduce referrals to Dares Salaam and hence delays in receiving CEmOC. METHODOLOGY: Hospital staffs were trained on CEmOC which included the use of partography and management of common obstetric emergencies. The list of lacking essential equipments for CEmOC was made and submitted to the district management for purchases. Weekly visit by the project manager was arranged for monitoring of the project. RESULTS: There was a three to four fold increase in the monthly-number of deliveries in the hospital and referrals decreased sharply. Almost all major obstetric intervention were performed in the hospital and only 20% of patients were referred. CONCLUSION: The findings from this project show that using local initiatives, resources and advocacy can give a good outcome of obstetric services.

Risks for preterm delivery and low birth weight are independently increased by severity of maternal anaemia

Objective. To estimate the effect of the severity of maternal anaemia on various perinatal outcomes. Design. A cross-sectional study. Setting. Labour Ward; Muhimbili National Hospital; Dar es Salaam; Tanzania. Methods. The haemoglobin of eligible pregnant women admitted for delivery between 15 November 2002 and 15 February 2003 was measu- red. Data on socio-demographic characteristics; iron supplementation; malaria prophylaxis; blood transfusion during current pregnancy; and current and previous pregnancy outcomes were collected and analysed. Anaemia was classified according to the World Health Organization (WHO) standards: normal - Hb =11.0 g/dl; mild - Hb 9.0 - 10.9 g/dl; moderate - Hb 7.0 - 8.9 g/dl; and severe - Hb 7.0 g/dl. Logistic regression analysis was performed to estimate the severity of anaemia. The following outcome measures were used: preterm delivery (37 weeks); Apgar score; stillbirth; early neonatal death; low birth weight (LBW) (2 500 g) and very low birth weight (VLBW) (1 500 g). Results. A total of 1 174 anaemic and 547 non-anaemic women were enrolled. Their median age was 24 years (range 14 - 46 years) and median parity was 2 (range 0 - 17). The prevalence of anaemia and severe anaemia was 68and 5.8; respectively. The risk of preterm delivery increased significantly with the severity of anaemia; with odds ratios of 1.4; 1.4 and 4.1 respectively for mild; moderate and severe anaemia. The corresponding risks for LBW and VLBW were 1.2 and 1.7; 3.8 and 1.5; and 1.9 and 4.2 respectively. Conclusion. The risks of preterm delivery and LBW increased in proportion to the severity of maternal anaemia

Staffing needs for quality perinatal care in Tanzania.

In Tanzania maternal and perinatal mortalities and morbidities are problems of public health importance, and have been linked to the shortage of skilled staff. We quantified the available workforce and the required nursing staff for perinatal care in 16 health institutions in Dar es Salaam. WHO safe motherhood needs assessment instruments were used to assess the availability of human resources, WHO designed Workload Indicators for Staffing Need (WISN) and Tanzanian standard activities and components of the workload for labour ward nursing were used to calculate nurse staffing requirements and WISN ratios. There was a severe shortage of essential categories of health staff for perinatal care in all institutions. The ranges of WISN ratios for nursing staff working in the municipal hospitals' labour wards were; nurse officers 0.5 - 1, trained nurses/midwives 0.2 - 0.4 and nurse assistants 0.1. These findings reflect extremely huge perinatal care workload pressure and suggest the urgent need for more staff in order to achieve the global millennium development goals set for maternal and infant survival.

Partogram use in the Dar es Salaam perinatal care study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the quality of partograms used to monitor labor in Dar es Salaam hospitals, Tanzania. METHODS: The study team reviewed the records of the parameters of labor, and maternal and fetal conditions in 367 partograms, and interviewed 20 midwives. RESULTS: All midwives interviewed had been previously trained to use the partogram. Of all partograms reviewed, 50% had no records of duration of labor. Although cervical dilation and fetal heart rates were recorded in 97% and 94% of the partograms respectively, 63% and 91% of these were judged to be substandard. Substandard monitoring of fetal heart rates was strongly associated with poor fetal outcome (P<0.001). Blood pressure, temperature, and pulse rates were not recorded in 47%-76% of partograms. CONCLUSION: These findings reflect poor management of labor and indicate urgent in-service training to address the importance of documentation and regular partogram audit in order to reduce maternal and perinatal deaths.

Assessing unmet obstetric need in Mtwara Region, Tanzania.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate maternity care, the feasibility of collecting the relevant data from hospital records, and to assess the usefulness for district health planning in the Mtwara Region, Tanzania. METHOD: A prospective study running over 2 years using the unmet obstetric need concept in all four hospitals in the region, covering all women undergoing major obstetric interventions. Data on indications, interventions, and pregnancy outcome were collected. Rates of major obstetric interventions performed for absolute maternal indications among all expected births in the study area were calculated to assess met and unmet need. RESULTS: Of 2404 interventions, 91% were caesarean sections, most commonly indicated by cephalo-pelvic disproportion (46%). The rate of major obstetric intervention for absolute maternal indications per 100 expected births was 1.8% overall with wide rural-urban disparities (1.4% vs. 3.3%). Based on the estimated need of at least 2% of births requiring of a major obstetric intervention, seven of 20 divisions reached or surpassed this threshold, seven had a level between 1% and 2% and six did not reach 1%. Data were collected as part of the regular activities of the health staff, but external resources were needed for data management and analysis. CONCLUSION: We found a major unmet obstetric need in rural areas with a clear trend towards fewer interventions with longer distance from a hospital. Geographical mapping of the met obstetric need provided a detailed picture of deficiencies in the provision of maternity care and could be useful for priority setting and monitoring.

Increased postpartum blood loss in pregnancies associated with placental malaria.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the relationship of placental malaria and parity with postpartum blood loss in a malarious area of Tanzania. METHODS: A total of 706 uncomplicated vaginal deliveries were studied at Muhimbili University Hospital, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Maternal age, parity, date of delivery, birth weight, presence of placental malaria, stillbirths, and delivery complications were noted. Collection and measurement of vaginal blood loss commenced immediately following birth using a plastic vinyl sheet placed underneath the mother. The bed was divided in the middle to allow the blood to drain into a bucket. Blood loss was measured for a period of 2 h following delivery. RESULTS: In singleton births the mean postpartum blood loss was 170 mL in nulliparas and 187 mL in multiparas (p=0.017). Blood loss was 400 mL or greater in 23 women (3.4%) and 500 mL or greater in 10 women (1.5%). Mean postpartum bleeding tended to increase with maternal age, parity, and birth weight. In logistic regression the odds ratio for a blood loss of 400 mL or greater was significantly increased for women with placental malaria (3.2; 95% confidence interval, 1.1-9.0; p=0.028), after adjusting for a birth weight greater than 4000 g. Placental malaria showed a marked seasonal pattern, which corresponded to the months of peak prevalence for a postpartum blood loss of 400 mL or greater (p=0.007). CONCLUSION: A postpartum blood loss of 400 mL or greater should be considered a possible complication of placental malaria.

Anaemia in women of reproductive age in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Anaemia is among the greatest health problems in reproductive age women in developing countries. OBJECTIVES: To estimate the prevalence of anaemia among non-pregnant parous women, and to investigate the main underlying cause for the anaemia. SETTING: A sub-urban Maternal and Child Health Clinic (MCH) in Dar es Salaam. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. METHODS: Consecutive parous non-pregnant women who had brought their children for vaccination and/or had come for family planning to Mbagala MCH clinic were invited to participate in the study. Obstetric and social history was recorded, and their height and weight were checked. Haemoglobin was measured using HemoCue hemoglobinometer. Anaemic women were further investigated to determine the cause of anaemia by haematological and biochemical tests. RESULTS: Five hundred and four parous non-pregnant women were screened, 49% were anaemic (Hb <12 g/dl) and 1.6% severely anaemic (Hb <7 g/dl). Anaemia was not related to socio-demographic and obstetric history characteristics, but decreased significantly with increasing Body Mass Index (BMI) (p=0.042). The prevalence of anaemia was significantly lower in women using hormonal contraceptives, compared to non-users (36% vs 54%) (p=0.04). Eighty-seven percent of the anaemic women were iron deficient and 8.7% had elevated serum C-reactive protein indicating undiagnosed infections. CONCLUSION: Nutritional deficiencies in women have to be corrected before and between pregnancies and all contacts women have with the health system should be utilised for anaemia control interventions, in addition to long-term community approaches. To improve maternal health calls for a broader agenda and a change of approach in the MCH-clinics.

Iron status and iron deficiency anaemia in adolescents in a Tanzanian suburban area.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the extent and degree of anaemia in adolescents in a Tanzanian suburban area, to estimate the contribution of iron deficiency, using serum (S)-ferritin and soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR) as markers of iron deficiency. MATERIALS: Consecutive primigravidae at booking for antenatal care (n = 76), primary school boys (n = 101) and postmenarchal girls (n = 130) age >or=12 years were investigated. METHODS: Weight and height were measured; venous blood was drawn for haematological analyses, malaria screening, S-ferritin, sTfR, and C-reactive protein. Stool specimens were analysed for intestinal parasites. RESULTS: Anaemia (Hb <105 g/l) was highly prevalent in adolescent primigravidae (75.5%). Adolescent girls were more anaemic (Hb <120 g/l) than boys (14.5 vs. 7.9%). Iron deficiency and hookworm infestation were predominant in both groups of adolescents, however, malaria contributed more to anaemia in the primigravidae. Nearly 40% of the anaemic primigravidae had indication of infection, and S-ferritin was less useful as a marker of iron deficiency in this group. sTfR identified iron deficiency in both pregnant and non-pregnant adolescents.

Change in maternal concerns during the 6 weeks postpartum period: a study of primaparous mothers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

The purpose of this study was to describe the postpartum concerns of primiparas. A cohort study included 79 mothers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Mothers sorted topics into worry, interest, and confidence. Trends of decreasing worry and increasing interest and confidence for baby-related and mother-related topics were observed from 1 to 6 weeks. At 1 week mothers worried about baby's eyes, respiration, temperature, safety, and crying; but, at 6 weeks only crying was a problem. Need for information was constant about general health, baby behavior, and care of the baby. At 1 week mothers worried about swollen perineum, and feeling tired and nervous. They wanted information about preventing hemorrhage and infection and taking care of the perineum, breasts, and nipples. Trends of increasing worry and decreasing confidence were observed with respect to family relationships. At 6 weeks, mothers worried about the husband/partner's reaction to themselves and to the baby. Confidence in relatives' reaction to themselves and the baby decreased. Being aware of the changes in the way concerns are expressed may guide nursing/midwifery interventions for mothers as to the content and timing.

Effectiveness of primary level antenatal care in decreasing anemia at term in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: In Tanzania the prevalence of anemia in pregnancy is high inspite of a high antenatal attendance and an established national policy of routine hematinic supplementation and malaria chemosuppression to all pregnant women, free of cost in all antenatal clinics. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effectiveness of reinforcing existing antenatal clinic routines for prevention and treatment of anemia in pregnancy, combined with individual and community health education. METHODS: A prospective controlled intervention study in two antenatal clinics at primary level. At booking (median 24 weeks), 1045 women were screened for anemia and followed-up to late pregnancy (gestational age > or =34 weeks). In addition to hematinic and malaria prophylaxis, extra interventions at the study clinic included retraining of staff, group and individual counselling of women and community health education in the area. RESULTS: There was a significant overall increase in median Hb from 10.1 g/dl at booking to 10.6 g/dl in late pregnancy, and prevalence of anemia (Hb < or =10.5 g/dl) was reduced from 60% at booking to 47%, at both clinics, with 57% reduction in the proportion with severe anemia (Hb <7.0 g/dl). Severely anemic women increased their median Hb by 3.2 g/dl during antenatal care. No additional effect was observed from an individual and community information program. CONCLUSION: Ensuring an adequate supply of drugs seems to be the most important activity to achieve safe hemoglobin levels in pregnant women, but even an active antenatal program has a limited effect when anemia is highly prevalent and booking is late.

PIP: This study assesses the effectiveness of primary level antenatal care in decreasing anemia among pregnant women in Tanzania. The sample included 1045 women screened for anemia and followed-up to late pregnancy. Extra interventions at the study clinic included retraining of staff, group and individual counseling of women, and community health education in the area. Results showed a significant overall increase in median Hb from 10.1 g/dl at booking to 10.6 g/dl in late pregnancy. Prevalence of anemia was reduced from 60% at booking to 47% at both clinics, with a 57% reduction in the proportion having severe anemia. Severely anemic women increased their median Hb by 3.2 g/dl during antenatal care. This study concludes that ensuring an adequate supply of drugs seems to be the most important activity to achieve safe hemoglobin levels in pregnant women, but even an active antenatal program has a limited effect when anemia is highly prevalent and booking is late.

The complexity of pregnancy anemia in Dar-es-Salaam.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the main causes of anemia in pregnancy in Dar-es-Salaam and identify appropriate investigations at all levels of care. MATERIALS: All pregnant women booking for antenatal care at 2 clinics (n = 2,235) were screened for anemia. Investigations for etiology of anemia were done in all anemic women (Hb <10.5 g/dl) (n = 361). METHODS: Blood cell counts, microscopy of blood films, S-ferritin, C-reactive protein, HIV, stool parasite and bone marrow analysis were performed. RESULTS: Iron deficiency dominated in 86% and malaria in 1/3 of anemia cases. Since 42% had indication of ongoing inflammation, S-ferritin was less useful as indicator of iron deficiency but blood film microscopy identified most cases.

Operational factors affecting maternal mortality in Tanzania.

Identification of the main operational factors in cases of maternal death within and outside the health care system is necessary for safe motherhood programmes. In this study, a follow-up was done of all 117 cases of maternal deaths in Ilala district, Dar es Salaam, 1991-1993, at all levels of care. In all, 79% received some medical care whereas 11% arrived too late for treatment. For each case the major operational factors and all health care interventions were defined through interviews with family members and health care staff and from hospital records, and the avoidability of each case was determined. In the health institutions where the women had consulted, the available resources were assessed. It was found that in most cases the husband (29%) or the mother (31%) of the woman decided on her care in cases of complications, and together with the lack of transport, this often caused delay at home. Also, delay in transfer from the district hospital was common. Cases of abortion complications were often not managed on time because of the delay in reporting to hospital or misleading information. Suboptimal care was identified in 77% of the cases reaching health care. Inadequate treatment was identified by the district health staff in 61% and by the referral centres in 12% of their cases. Wrong decision at the district level and lack of equipment at the referral centre were the main reasons for inadequate care. It is concluded that although community education on danger signs in pregnancy and labour is important, provision of the core resources and supplies for emergency obstetric interventions, as well as clear protocols for management and referral, are absolutely necessary for improvement of maternal survival.

PIP: All 117 cases of maternal deaths in Ilala district, Dar es Salaam, during 1991-93 at all levels of care were investigated to identify the principal operational factors involved. 79% of the women received some medical care, while 11% arrived too late for treatment. In most cases, the husband or the mother of the woman decided upon her care when complications arose. That decision process combined with a lack of transportation to health care facilities often resulted in the delay of departure from home. Delay in the transfer from the district hospital was also common. Complications of abortion often were not managed in a timely manner due to the delay in reporting to the hospital or the reporting of misleading information. Suboptimal care was identified in 77% of cases reaching health care, with inadequate treatment identified by the district health staff in 61% of cases and by the referral centers in 12% of their cases. Erroneous decisions made at the district level and the lack of equipment at referral centers were the main reasons for inadequate care. Community education on potential danger signs in pregnancy and labor is needed, together with the provision of the necessary resources and supplies for emergency obstetric interventions, as well as clear protocols for management and referral. Study findings are based upon the review of hospital records and interviews with family members and health care staff.

Anaemia in pregnancy: a major health problem with implications for maternal health care.

Women (n=2235) registering for antenatal care in two maternal and child health clinics in the Dar es Salaam area between June, 1991 and June 1992 had their haemoglobin (Hb) measured by use of a HaemoCuer haemoglobinometer. The prevalence of anaemia Hb<10.5 g/dl) was 60% while severe anaemia (Hb<7.0 //dl) was present in 4%. Young nullparous women, those who register for antenatal care late in the third trimester, and undernourished women constitute high risk groups also for severe anemia and require special attention. No single maternal characteristics or combination thereof was useful to identify a group of screening. The current national Hb level for referral to hospital (8.5 g/dl) identified 20% of the pregnant population. Most of these can successfully be treated and followed at the primary care level. To comply with the available means for care in the Dar es Salaam area, it is proposed that the cutoff level for referral be changed to <7g/dl. Appropriate methods to screen for anemia at primary health care (PHC) level must be explored and instituted. Training of antenatal care (ANC) providers in clinical identification of anemia and supply of haematinics must be improved and early booking for ANC promoted. Public health measures to improve the general nutrition and iron intake of all women are necessary to reduce this serious health problem in pregnancy.

Anaemia in Pregnancy : a Major Health Problem with Implications for Material Health Care

Women (n=2235) registering for antenatal care in two maternal and child health clinics in the Dar es Salaam area between June; 1991 and June 1992 had their haemoglobin (Hb) measured by use of a HaemoCuer haemoglobinometer. The prevalence of anaemia Hb10.5 g/dl) was 60while severe anaemia (Hb7.0 //dl) was present in 4. Young nullparous women; those who register for antenatal care late in the third trimester; and undernourished women constitute high risk groups also for severe anemia and require special attention. No single maternal characteristics or combination thereof was useful to identify a group of screening. The current national Hb level for referral to hospital (8.5 g/dl) identified 20of the pregnant population. Most of these can successfully be treated and followed at the primary care level. To comply with the available means for care in the Dar es Salaam area; it is proposed that the cutoff level for referral be changed to 7g/dl. Appropriate methods to screen for anemia at primary health care (PHC) level must be explored and instituted. Training of antenatal care (ANC) providers in clinical identification of anemia and supply of haematinics must be improved and early booking for ANC promoted. Public health measures to improve the general nutrition and iron intake of all women are necessary to reduce this serious health problem in pregnancy

Anaemia in pregnancy: perceptions of patients in Dar-es-Salaam.

This study was performed to assess the pregnant women's knowledge and attitudes towards anaemia, its causes, prophylaxis, and treatment and to describe existing problems with interventions for anaemia in antenatal clinics. A total of 310 women were interviewed from three MCH-clinics in suburban Dar-es-Salaam. Anaemia was considered a major problem by 88% and 75%, respectively in the two peripheral MCH clinics, but by only 44% of attenders in the hospital MCH clinic. Over 85% of interviewees were aware of the causes of and ways of preventing anaemia. The most frequently mentioned cause of anaemia were related to nutrition while intestinal parasites was mentioned by a few women. Only 5% believed that anaemia might not be dangerous for the mother. In all three clinics more than 90% were aware of the advantages of early booking for antenatal care. None of the mothers had received any ferrous supplements during the current pregnancy, and only a minority (38%) in the previous pregnancy though 40% of them said they were informed they had anaemia in the previous pregnancy. Side effects were not reported as a reason for non-compliance. Thus, mothers were aware that anaemia is a health problem in pregnancy. They would accept effective intervention if they were offered them. The irregular and inadequate supply of haematinics to antenatal clinics is a far more important obstacle to the implementation of the anaemia prevention programme than the knowledge and attitudes of the mothers.

Recognition of risk factors in pregnancy among women attending antenatal clinic at Mbagala, Dar es Salaam.

A study on the recognition of risk factors in pregnancy by pregnant women attending antenatal clinic (ANC) at Mbagala, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania was done. 203 women with ages ranging from 15-43 years were seen on their first visit. 32.51% were primigravidas while 67.5% were multiparous with parity varying from 2-13 deliveries. 32.5% had received no formal education; 13.4% had 1-6 years education, while 54.2% had 7-12 years of formal education. Most of the women did not know when in the course of pregnancy they should start ANC: 52% of the women booked and reported that the best gestational age for booking was in the second trimester. There was no definite answer as to why the women came for the 1st visit to the ANC at a particular gestational age. 5% of the women felt that a woman could start to have children between age 10-14 years. 62.1% thought a woman could start to have children between 15-20 years. 10.3% did not know when a woman could start to have children. Some of the risk factors identified at the clinic included: shortness, age below 19 (11.8%), age 35 and more than 4 deliveries (13.3%) and HB below 75%, malaria and hookworm (9.9%). It appears that pregnant women attending Mbagala ANC booked within the second and third trimester. Their knowledge regarding risk factors in pregnancy was very low. A comprehensive antenatal intervention programme should be introduced at Mbagala ANC to educate women on risk factors in pregnancy. It should be conducted through client oriented problem and need approach.

Female mortality in reproductive ages in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

An audit of all cases of female mortality in the reproductive age groups has been performed in Dar es Salaam during 1991-93. Multiple sources of information was used to collect information on deaths. None of the sources of information on death was alone adequate. 73% of the interviews was done at home. The mother or another close relative was interviewed in more than 70% of the cases. A total of 645 deaths were identified and 18% of these were related to pregnancy. Fever, shortness of breath and weight loss were the most common symptoms before death followed by pallor and vomiting. Almost 90% visited a health facility before death. AIDS (27%), tuberculosis (13%) and malaria (12%) were the most common causes of death. Diagnosis could not be made from audit data in 22 cases, and the relatives attributed 7.6% of all deaths to witchcraft or just God's will. AIDS and related diseases are now a major cause of death in the female reproductive age group. There is need to identify preventive measures of this disease as well as prevention of malaria and tuberculosis.

PIP: In order to study maternal mortality in Ilala District, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, all female deaths in the 12-44 year age group were registered from February 1991 to January 1993. After a follow-up, a relative of the deceased was interviewed to classify the death as associated with pregnancy or not. Eight data collectors were employed to collect information. The team visited each of the 72 areas at least once in 2 weeks. The team also visited mortuaries, grave yards, and religious premises to get information on deaths. All hospitals in the district were regularly visited. A detailed history was taken from a relative of the deceased woman according to a structured questionnaire. 645 female deaths were identified and 117 (18%) were maternal deaths. Most of the interviews (73%) were made at home. In 32% of the cases the interviewee was the mother, in 26% the sister, and in 4-9% the husband, aunt, uncle, father or daughter. Only 10% of the deceased women did not seek any medical treatment prior to death. Three out of 4 women had had fever before death. The second most common symptom was shortness of breath (56%) with a median duration of 6 days. About half of the women had lost weight, complained of abdominal pain, or had been pale or vomiting. Medical records were available in only 44% of the cases. According to the physicians, in 22 (3.5%) women the cause of death was not possible to determine. AIDS (27%), tuberculosis (13%), and malaria (12%) were the most common causes of death. God's will and witchcraft were mentioned as the cause of death for 48 (7.6%) cases. AIDS is a major cause of death in women of reproductive age, therefore AIDS preventive measures must be employed along with more aggressive treatment of malaria and tuberculosis.