The Use of Cognitive Tests in the Assessment of Dyslexia.

In this literature review, we address the use of cognitive tests, including intelligence tests, in the assessment and diagnosis of dyslexia, from both historic and present-day perspectives. We discuss the role of cognitive tests in the operationalization of the concepts of specificity and unexpectedness, two constructs considered essential to the characterization of dyslexia since the publication of early case reports in the late nineteenth century. We review the advantages and disadvantages of several approaches to specific learning disabilities' identification that are used in schools. We also discuss contemporary debates around the use of standardized cognitive testing in dyslexia evaluations, in particular, the arguments of those who favor an approach to diagnosis based on prior history and the results of a comprehensive evaluation and those who favor an approach based on an individual's response to intervention. We attempt to explain both perspectives by examining clinical observations and research findings. We then provide an argument for how cognitive tests can contribute to an accurate and informed diagnosis of dyslexia.

Preservice educators' and noneducators' knowledge and perceptions of responsibility about dyslexia.

More individuals are affected by dyslexia than any other learning disability. The success of students with dyslexia receiving early identification and evidence-based interventions is dependent upon the knowledge and skills of the school practitioners responsible for their academic programmes. This study investigated knowledge of dyslexia and perceptions of responsibility by administering the Knowledge and Insights of Dyslexia Survey (KIDS) to 243 university students. Survey responses of students (n) majoring in degrees in education (education majors [EM], n = 154) were compared with the responses of students majoring in degrees in architecture (noneducation majors [NEM], n = 89). In addition, the results were further examined between students majoring in General Education, Special Education, and School Psychology. Results indicated no significant differences in knowledge existed between EM and NEM or within EM. Of the topics investigated, participants knew the least about the treatment of dyslexia and demonstrated confusion about the components of appropriate instruction. Analysis of participant definitions revealed pervasive confusion about the characteristics of dyslexia with most believing myths that those with dyslexia "see and read backwards." Additionally, EM rated themselves as being moderately responsible for educating students with dyslexia and believed special educators hold the greatest level of responsibility.

Dyslexia laws in the USA.

Throughout the various states of the USA, the appropriate identification of dyslexia and the timely provision of interventions are characterized by variability and inconsistency. Several states have recognized the existence of this disorder and the well-established need for services. These states have taken proactive steps to implement laws and regulations for both identification and treatment, and the provision of equal access to students who are diagnosed with dyslexia. The majority of states, however, have not developed such laws and guidelines. The purposes of this article are to review the present status and content of these dyslexia laws, highlight some differences among the laws and regulations across states, and suggest strategies for initiating such laws.

Professional development in scientifically based reading instruction: teacher knowledge and reading outcomes.

This article reviews the literature and presents data from a study that examined the effects of professional development in scientifically based reading instruction on teacher knowledge and student reading outcomes. The experimental group consisted of four first- and second-grade teachers and their students (n = 33). Three control teachers and their students (n = 14), from a community of significantly higher socioeconomic demographics, were also followed. Experimental teachers participated in a 35-hour course on instruction of phonemic awareness, phonics, and fluency and were coached by professional mentors for a year. Although teacher knowledge in the experimental group was initially lower than that of the controls, their scores surpassed the controls on the posttest. First-grade experimental students' growth exceeded the controls in letter name fluency, phonemic segmentation, nonsense word fluency, and oral reading. Second-grade experimental students exceeded controls in phonemic segmentation. Although the teacher sample was small, findings suggest that teachers can improve their knowledge concerning explicit reading instruction and that this new knowledge may contribute to student growth in reading.

Using semantics, grammar, phonology, and rapid naming tasks to predict word identification.

This study investigated the relative importance of semantic, grammatical, phonological, and rapid naming abilities in predicting word identification in a large, representative sample of children enrolled in first through sixth grade, using correlation, factor analysis, multiple regression, and predictive outcome analysis techniques. Composite measures of these abilities were found to correlate significantly with word identification, even after controlling for the effects of nonverbal intelligence. Factor analysis indicated that the spoken language composites and the word identification composite loaded on one factor, whereas the perceptual speed composites loaded on a second factor. Multiple regression analyses showed that among younger children in the early stages of learning to read and children whose word identifying skills were below average, the phonology and rapid naming composites accounted for the most variance in predicting word identification skills. Among older children and children who were proficient in word identification, the semantics composite accounted for the most variance. The most important analyses in this study (i.e., the calculations of the sensitivity indexes, the specificity indexes, and the positive predictive values) evaluated the practical value of using the composites to predict poor word identification skills in children. To be considered practically useful, all predictive outcome values had to be .75 or greater. None of the composites studied, including an application of the double-deficit hypothesis, met this criterion. The results from this study question the accuracy and utility of using any of the abilities studied to predict which students are at risk for or have poor word identification skills.

School is fun at recess: informal analyses of written language for students with learning disabilities.

The purpose of an informal analysis of written language is to identify what writers can do as well as what they find difficult about writing. This article reviews the varied components of written language, suggests informal means for assessment, and summarizes the cognitive and linguistic factors that influence varied aspects of writing performance. Two informal evaluation scales are presented that stress the interconnection between oral and written language processes.