Evidence of validity and reliability of the controlling motivational style questionnaire in the work context.

According to the self-determination theory (SDT), leaders may adopt a controlling motivational controlling style (CMS) that forces employees to think, feel, or behave in a certain way to promote employee motivation. However, a scale has yet to be developed to measure CMS in the work environment. Usually, researchers use questionnaires adapted to different contexts or designed for another motivational style. However, whether these questionnaires capture the behaviors that represent CMS in the work context is little known. This research aimed to elaborate on and analyze the validity and reliability of the questionnaire on Controlling Motivational Style at Work (CMS-W). The study was based on a literature review of the types of controlling behaviors and a review of questionnaires used by SDT researchers who assessed the controlling motivational style in different contexts. A Peruvian sample of 1100 public sector employees participated. The results show that the short and encompassing CMS-W-11 has a one-dimensional structure with good fit indices: Robust RMSEA = 0.071 with 90 % CI from 0.064 to 0.078; Robust CFI = 0.975; Robust TLI = 0.969; SRMR = 0.025 and good reliability coefficients: Ω = 0.930 and AVE 0.630. Furthermore, it shows convergent validity with controlled motivation (r = 0.260, p < .001) and discriminant validity with autonomous motivation (r = -0.270, p < .001). Moreover, the invariance of the gender category was tested. The fit indices were adequate, and the comparative results between the models were also satisfactory. In addition, the behaviors of the CMS in a work context are conditional negative regard, judging and devaluing, control through objectives, intimidation, and intrusive authority. Therefore, labor organizations will have the CMS-W validated and tested in a work context to evaluate the CMS of leaders and study how it related to the motivation of human capital and organizational objectives.

The type of motivation does matter for university preparation / O tipo de motivação importa para a preparação da faculdade

Using Self-Determination Theory, the relationship between motivation (autonomous and controlled), academic self-efficacy, test anxiety, life satisfaction and academic achievement was studied in a group of pre-university students from Lima-Peru. A total of 252 students of both sexes with ages between 16 and 30 years (Mage = 17.69) were assessed. Correlational analyses showed the expected relationships among the studied variables. The path analysis performed gave evidence of the fulfillment of the hypotheses proposed for this study since academic self-efficacy mediated the relationship between autonomous motivation and academic achievement and life satisfaction; also test anxiety mediated the relationship between controlled motivation and academic achievement and life satisfaction. The implications of these empirical findings are discussed in relation to pre-university education in Peru.

Utilizando a Teoria da Autodeterminação, as relações entre motivação (autônoma e controlada), autoeficácia acadêmica, ansiedade de teste, satisfação com a vida e desempenho acadêmico foram estudadas em um grupo de alunos pré-universitários de Lima-Peru. Foram avaliados 252 alunos de ambos os sexos com idade entre 16 e 30 anos (Média = 17,69). A análise correlacional mostrou as associações esperadas entre as variáveis, e a análise da trajetória mostrou conformidade com as hipóteses propostas, uma vez que a autoeficácia acadêmica mediou a relação entre motivação autónoma, desempenho acadêmico e satisfação com a vida e, por sua vez, a ansiedade de teste mediou a relação entre motivação controlada e desempenho acadêmico e satisfação com a vida. São discutidas as implicações dos resultados empíricos na perspectiva da educação pré-universitária no Peru.

Context Matters: Teaching Styles and Basic Psychological Needs Predicting Flourishing and Perfectionism in University Music Students.

Professional musicians are expected to perform at a very high level of proficiency. Many times, this high standard is associated with perfectionism, which has been shown to prompt both adaptive and maladaptive motivational dynamics and outcomes among music students. The question about how perfectionism interplays with motivational dynamics in music students is still unanswered and research within this line is scarce, especially in Latin America. In the light of Self-Determination Theory (SDT), this cross-sectional study investigated the relationship between the perceptions of motivational context (teachers' motivating styles: autonomy supportive or controlling), basic psychological needs (satisfaction/frustration), perfectionism (adaptive/maladaptive), and flourishing in University music students from Lima, Peru (N = 149; mean age = 20.68, SD = 3.03; 71% men). We performed a path analysis testing a model in which motivational teaching styles predicted both, perfectionism and flourishing via need satisfaction and frustration. The model's fit indices were ideal [χ2 (7, N = 143) = 7.48, p = 0.300, CFI = 0.998, TLI = 0.992, RMSEA = 0.021, SRMR =0.040]. In this model, perceived autonomy supportive style predicted need satisfaction positively and need frustration negatively; perceived controlling teaching style did not predict need satisfaction nor frustration. In turn, need satisfaction positively predicted adaptive perfectionism (i.e., high standards) and flourishing; whereas, need frustration predicted maladaptive perfectionism (i.e., discrepancy). These results shed light on the relevance of perfectionism in the psychology of higher music education students. Lastly, we highlight the importance of autonomy support in fostering adaptive high standards and flourishing in music learning.

Internalization of Mastery Goals: The Differential Effect of Teachers' Autonomy Support and Control.

Two linked studies explored whether students' perceptions differentiate between teachers' autonomy support and control when presenting mastery goals, and the outcomes of these two practices, in terms of students' internalization of mastery goals and their behavioral engagement. In two phases, Study 1 (N = 317) sought to validate a new instrument assessing students' perceptions of teachers' autonomy support and control when presenting mastery goals. Study 2 (N = 1,331) demonstrated that at both within- and between-classroom levels, perceptions of teachers' autonomy support for mastery goals were related to students' mastery goals' endorsement and behavioral engagement. These relations were mediated by students' autonomous reasons to pursue learning activities. Perceptions of teachers' control predicted disengagement through controlled reasons for learning, but only at the within-classroom level. This research joins a growing body of work demonstrating that combining achievement goal theory with SDT can further our understanding of the underpinnings of achievement motivation. It suggests that if teachers want their students to endorse mastery goals (and be more engaged), they need to use more autonomy supportive practices and less controlling ones.

Perfiles motivacionales relacionados con la satisfacción académica de estudiantes universitarios / Motivational profiles related to the academic satisfaction of university students

Los objetivos del estudio fueron identificar los perfiles motivacionales de estudiantes universitarios y evaluar sus diferencias en cuanto a la satisfacción académica. Los participantes fueron 882 estudiantes con edades comprendidas entre los 17 y 50 años, procedentes de nueve universidades chilenas. Los perfiles motivacionales se identificaron mediante análisis de conglomerados, siguiendo la combinación de métodos jerárquicos y no jerárquicos. El análisis de conglomerados se realizó incluyendo las siguientes variables motivacionales: (1) motivación autónoma, (2) motivación controlada, (3) percepción de apoyo a la autonomía, y (4) percepción de control de la autonomía. Las diferencias entre los perfiles se evaluaron a través de la prueba Anova unifactorial, considerando el cálculo del tamaño del efecto y el análisis post-hoc de Games-Howell. Los resultados del análisis de conglomerados apoyaron una solución de cuatro perfiles motivacionales: mala calidad (n = 167), baja cantidad (n = 144), buena calidad (n = 333), y alta cantidad (n = 238). Además, los estudiantes agrupados en los perfiles con mayores niveles de autonomía para el aprendizaje, presentaron los niveles más altos de satisfacción académica. Como conclusión, se destaca la importancia que tienen los factores motivacionales para facilitar el desarrollo del bienestar de los estudiantes universitarios

The aims of the study were to identify the motivational profiles of university students and to assess their differences according the academic satisfaction. The participants were 882 students aged 17 to 50, from nine Chilean universities. Motivational profiles were identified by cluster analysis, following the combination of hierarchical and non-hierarchical methods. The cluster analysis was perform including the following motivational variables: (1) autonomous motivation, (2) controlled motivation, (3) perception of autonomy support, and (4) perception of autonomy control. The differences among the profiles were assessed through the one way Anova test, considering the effect size calculation, and the Games-Howell post-hoc analysis. The cluster analysis results supported a four motivational profiles solution: poor quality (n = 167), low quantity (n = 144), good quality (n = 333), and high quantity (n = 238). Moreover, students grouped into profiles with higher levels of autonomy for learning, presented the highest levels of academic satisfaction. In conclusion, the importance of motivational factors to facilitate the development of university students' well-being is highlighted

Building on the Enriched Hierarchical Model of Achievement Motivation: Autonomous and Controlling Reasons Underlying Mastery Goals.

Two motivational theories - the Achievement Goal Theory and Self-Determination Theory - have recently been combined to explain students' motivation, making it possible to study the "what" and the "why" of learners' achievement strivings. The present study built on this approach by (a) investigating whether the distinction between autonomous or volitional and controlling or pressuring reasons can be meaningfully applied to the adoption of mastery-avoidance goals, (b) investigating the concurrent and prospectiverelations between mastery-avoidance goals and their underlying reasons and learning strategies when mastery-approach goals and their underlying reasons were also considered, and by (c) incorporating psychological need experiences as an explanatory variable in the relation between achievement motives (i.e., the motive to succeed and motive to avoid failure) and both mastery goals and their underlying reasons. In two Turkish university students samples (N = 226, Mage = 22.36; N = 331, Mage = 19.5), autonomous and controlling reasons appeared applicable to mastery-avoidance goals and regression and path analysis further showed that mastery-avoidance goals and their underlying autonomous reasons fail to predicted learning strategies over and above the pursuit of mastery-approach goals and their underlying reasons. Finally, need experiences were established as mediators between achievement motives and both mastery goals and their underlying reasons.

School Motivation Questionnaire for the Portuguese population: structure and psychometric studies.

It is presented the structure and psychometric studies of the "School Motivation Questionnaire". The SMQ is a self-report questionnaire with 101 items, organized in sixteen scales that measure the students' goal orientations, the perceived classroom goal structures, the perceived teacher's autonomy support and the use of learning strategies. Twelve scales are adapted from the "Learning Climate Questionnaire", "Perceptions of Instrumentality" and "Cuestionário a Estudiantes". Four scales and five additional items are created new. The psychometric studies rely on a convenience sample consisting of 9th and 12th grade students (N = 485) of Portuguese schools. The factorial and construct validity, verified through several exploratory factorial analyses to the data, presents a final solution of six factors, labelled Strategies (F1), Teacher Extrinsic Goals (F2), Student Extrinsic Goals, Externally Regulated (F3) Teacher Intrinsic Goals (F4), Student Extrinsic Goals, Internally Regulated (F5), and Student Intrinsic Goals (F6). The six-factor solution explains a significant variance of the scale results (53.95%). Good coefficients of internal consistency are obtained for all factors, never below (.858; F6). In sum there is strong evidence to support the multi-dimensionality of SMQ, upholding that the data obtained is exploratory and applies for future validation studies.

School motivation questionnaire for the Portuguese population: structure and psychometric studies

It is presented the structure and psychometric studies of the «School Motivation Questionnaire». The SMQ is a self-report questionnaire with 101 items, organized in sixteen scales that measure the students' goal orientations, the perceived classroom goal structures, the perceived teacher's autonomy support and the use of learning strategies. Twelve scales are adapted from the «Learning Climate Questionnaire», «Perceptions of Instrumentality» and «Cuestionário a Estudiantes». Four scales and five additional items are created new. The psychometric studies rely on a convenience sample consisting of 9th and 12th grade students ( = 485) of Portuguese schools. The factorial and construct validity, verified through several exploratory factorial analyses to the data, presents a final solution of six factors, labelled Strategies (F1), Teacher Extrinsic Goals (F2), Student Extrinsic Goals, Externally Regulated (F3) Teacher Intrinsic Goals (F4), Student Extrinsic Goals, Internally Regulated (F5), and Student Intrinsic Goals (F6). The six-factor solution explains a significant variance of the scale results (53.95%). Good coefficients of internal consistency are obtained for all factors, never below (.858; F6). In sum there is strong evidence to support the multi-dimensionality of SMQ, upholding that the data obtained is exploratory and applies for future validation studies (AU)

Se presenta la estructura y los estudios psicométricos del «Cuestionario de Motivación Escolar». El CME es un cuestionario de auto informe con 101 ítems, organizados en dieciséis escalas que miden las orientaciones de las metas de los estudiantes, la percepción de las estructuras de las metas de clase, las percepciones del apoyo del profesor a la autonomía y el uso de estrategias de aprendizaje. Doce escalas son una adaptación del «Learning Climate Questionnaire», «Perceptions of Instrumentality» y «Cuestionario a Estudiantes». Cuatro escalas y cinco frases adicionales se crearon para este estudio. Los estudios psicométricos se basan en una muestra de conveniencia compuesta por estudiantes de los grados 9 y 12 (N = 485) de las escuelas portuguesas. La validez factorial y la construcción ha sido verificada a través de varios análisis factoriales exploratorios de los datos, y presenta una solución definitiva de seis factores, siendo Estrategias (F1), Metas extrínsecas de los docentes (F2), Metas extrínsecas de los estudiantes, reguladas externamente (F3), Metas intrínsecas de los docentes (F4), Metas extrínsecas de los estudiantes ,reguladas internamente (F5), y Metas intrínsecas de los estudiantes (F6). La solución de seis factores explica una variación significativa de los resultados de la escala (53,95%). Se encontraron buenos coeficientes de consistencia interna para todos los factores, nunca por debajo de (.858; F6). En suma, hay una fuerte evidencia para apoyar la multidimensionalidad del CME. Estos resultados son exploratorios y servirán como una base para estudios de validación posteriores (AU)

Economic inequality is linked to biased self-perception.

People's self-perception biases often lead them to see themselves as better than the average person (a phenomenon known as self-enhancement). This bias varies across cultures, and variations are typically explained using cultural variables, such as individualism versus collectivism. We propose that socioeconomic differences among societies--specifically, relative levels of economic inequality--play an important but unrecognized role in how people evaluate themselves. Evidence for self-enhancement was found in 15 diverse nations, but the magnitude of the bias varied. Greater self-enhancement was found in societies with more income inequality, and income inequality predicted cross-cultural differences in self-enhancement better than did individualism/collectivism. These results indicate that macrosocial differences in the distribution of economic goods are linked to microsocial processes of perceiving the self.

Examining the motivational impact of intrinsic versus extrinsic goal framing and autonomy-supportive versus internally controlling communication style on early adolescents' academic achievement.

The present experimental research examined whether framing early adolescents' (11- to 12-year-olds) learning activity in terms of the attainment of an extrinsic (i.e., physical attractiveness) versus intrinsic (i.e., health) goal and communicating these different goal contents in an internally controlling versus autonomy-supportive way affect performance. Both conceptual and rote learning were assessed. Three experimental field studies, 2 among obese and 1 among nonobese participants, confirmed the hypothesis that extrinsic goal framing and internal control undermine conceptual (but not rote) learning, even in comparison with a control group. Study 3 indicated that the positive effect of intrinsic goal framing on conceptual learning was mediated by task involvement, whereas the positive effect of autonomy-supportive communication style on conceptual learning was mediated by relative autonomous motivation.