In vitro phosphorylation of von Willebrand factor by FAM20c enhances its ability to support platelet adhesion.

Essentials Platelet adhesion to von Willebrand factor (VWF) is critical for hemostasis and thrombosis. Whether VWF can undergo phosphorylation is unknown. Family with sequence similarity 20 kinase phosphorylates VWF A2 domain at S1517 and S1613. Phosphorylation of VWF and VWF A1A2A3 domain at S1613 enhances platelet adhesion. SUMMARY: Background von Willebrand factor (VWF) mediates platelet adhesion and contributes to hemostasis at sites of vascular injury as well as to arterial thrombosis. The A1A2A3 domains of VWF contain important sites that differentially participate in supporting platelet adhesion. FAM20c (family with sequence similarity 20, member C) has emerged as a serine/threonine kinase, which phosphorylates extracellular proteins containing the S-X-E/pS motifs that are also found within the VWF A domains. This is of interest because we and others have shown that structural modifications within these A domains influence the ability of VWF to support platelet adhesion. Objective We assessed if VWF A domains can be phosphorylated and the functional consequence of phosphorylated VWF. Results Here, we show that FAM20c phosphorylated purified plasma VWF, VWF A1A2A3 protein, isolated A2 domain, but not A1 and A3 domain proteins, in vitro. FAM20c phosphorylated the isolated A2 domain at S1517 and S1613 within the S-X-E recognition motif, with S1613 being the major phosphorylation site. Mass spectrometry analysis of purified plasma VWF from healthy donors revealed several phosphorylation sites, including the S1613 in the A2 domain. VWF A1A2A3 domain protein phosphorylated at S1613 promoted stable platelet adhesion and microthrombi at high shear stress. Lastly, under high shear stress VWF treated with FAM20c and ATP robustly supported platelet adhesion, compared to VWF treated with FAM20c in the absence of ATP. Conclusion These outcomes indicate that VWF can be phosphorylated by FAM20c in vitro, and this novel post-translational modification enhances the adhesiveness of VWF to platelets.

Aurora kinase B dependent phosphorylation of 53BP1 is required for resolving merotelic kinetochore-microtubule attachment errors during mitosis.

Defects in resolving kinetochore-microtubule attachment mistakes during mitosis is linked to chromosome instability associated with carcinogenesis as well as resistance to cancer therapy. Here we report for the first time that tumor suppressor p53-binding protein 1 (53BP1) is phosphorylated at serine 1342 (S1342) by Aurora kinase B both in vitro and in human cells, which is required for optimal recruitment of 53BP1 at kinetochores. Furthermore, 53BP1 staining normally localized on the outer kinetochore, extended to the whole kinetochore when it is merotelically-attached, in concert with mitotic centromere-associated kinesin. Kinetochore-binding of pS1342-53BP1 is essential for efficient resolving of merotelic attachment, a spontaneous kinetochore-microtubule connection error that usually causes aneuploidy. Consistently, loss of 53BP1 results in significant increase in lagging chromosome events, micronuclei formation and aneuploidy, due to the unresolved merotely in both cancer and primary cells, which is prevented by ectopic wild type 53BP1 but not by the nonphophorylable S1342A mutant. We thus document a novel DNA damage-independent function of 53BP1 in maintaining faithful chromosome segregation during mitosis.

Expression and purification of an engineered, yeast-expressed Leishmania donovani nucleoside hydrolase with immunogenic properties.

Leishmania donovani is the major cause of visceral leishmaniasis (kala-azar), now recognized as the parasitic disease with the highest level of mortality second only to malaria. No human vaccine is currently available. A 36 kDa L. donovani nucleoside hydrolase (LdNH36) surface protein has been previously identified as a potential vaccine candidate antigen. Here we present data on the expression of LdNH36 in Pichia pastoris and its purification at the 20 L scale to establish suitability for future pilot scale manufacturing. To improve efficiency of process development and ensure reproducibility, 4 N-linked glycosylation sites shown to contribute to heterogeneous high-mannose glycosylation were mutated to glutamine residues. The mutant LdNH36 (LdNH36-dg2) was expressed and purified to homogeneity. Size exclusion chromatography and light scattering demonstrated that LdNH36-dg2 existed as a tetramer in solution, similar to the wild-type recombinant L. major nucleoside hydrolase. The amino acid mutations do not affect the tetrameric interface as confirmed by theoretical modeling, and the mutated amino acids are located outside the major immunogenic domain. Immunogenic properties of the LdNH36-dg2 recombinant protein were evaluated in BALB/c mice using formulations that included a synthetic CpG oligodeoxynucleotide, together with a microparticle delivery platform (poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)). Mice exhibited high levels of IgG1, IgG2a, and IgG2b antibodies that were reactive to both LdNH36-dg2 and LdNH36 wild-type. While the point mutations did affect the hydrolase activity of the enzyme, the IgG antibodies elicited by LdNH36-dg2 were shown to inhibit the hydrolase activity of the wild-type LdNH36. The results indicate that LdNH36-dg2 as expressed in and purified from P. pastoris is suitable for further scale-up, manufacturing, and testing in support of future first-in-humans phase 1 clinical trials.

Differential Mitochondrial Function in Remodeled Right and Nonremodeled Left Ventricles in Pulmonary Hypertension.

OBJECTIVES: Right ventricular failure is the primary reason for mortality in pulmonary hypertension (PH), but little is understood about the energetics of the failing right myocardium. Our aim was to examine mitochondrial function and proteomic signatures in paired remodeled right (RM-RV) and non-remodeled left (NRM-LV) ventricular tissue samples procured during heart-lung transplantation. METHODS AND RESULTS: Contractile dysfunction in RM-RV and preserved contractile function in NRM-LV were determined clinically and by echocardiography. Mitochondria were isolated from fresh paired RV and LV wall specimens of explanted hearts. Respiratory states in response to 4 substrates and an uncoupler were analyzed. Proteomic analysis on the mitochondrial isolates was performed with the use of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The RM-RV mitochondria exhibited higher succinate state 4 levels with lower respiratory control ratio (RCR) compared with state 4 levels for pyruvate-malate (PM) and glutamate-malate (GM). RM-RV mitochondria also exhibited lower state 3 for palmitoyl-carnitine (PC) and state 4 for all complex I substrates compared with NRM-LV. The mean RCR were greater in RM-RVs than in NRM-LVs for PM and GM, which is consistent with tight coupling (low state 4 rates, higher RCRs); however, low RM-RV state 3 rates suggest concurrent substrate-dependent impairment in respiratory capacity. Mitochondrial proteomics revealed greater levels of mitochondrial ADP-ATP translocase and proteins of ATP synthesis, mitochondrial pyruvate and short branched chain acyl-CoA metabolism in RM-RV. CONCLUSIONS: The mitochondrial respiration and proteomics in RM-RV are different from NRM-LV. These results have important implications in expanding our understanding of RV metabolism and future management of RV failure.

Performance and System Validation of a New Cellular-Enabled Blood Glucose Monitoring System Using a New Standard Reference Measurement Procedure of Isotope Dilution UPLC-MRM Mass Spectrometry.

BACKGROUND: We evaluated the accuracy, precision, and linearity of the In Touch blood glucose monitoring system (BGMS), a new color touch screen and cellular-enabled blood glucose meter, using a new rapid, highly precise and accurate (13)C6 isotope-dilution liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method (IDLC-MS). METHODS: Blood glucose measurements from the In Touch BGMS were referenced to a validated UPLC-MRM standard reference measurement procedure previously shown to be highly accurate and precise. Readings from the In Touch BGMS were taken over the blood glucose range of 24-640 mg/dL using 12 concentrations of blood glucose. Ten In Touch BGMS and 3 lots of test strips were used with 10 replicates at each concentration. A lay user study was also performed to assess the ease of use. RESULTS: At blood glucose concentrations <75 mg/dL 100% of the measurements are within ±8 mg/dL from the true reference standard; at blood glucose levels >75 mg/dL 100% of the measurements are within ±15% of the true reference standard. 100% of the results are within category A of the consensus grid. Within-run precision show CV < 3.72% between 24-50 mg/dL and CV<2.22% between 500 and 600 mg/dL. The results show that the In Touch meter exceeds the minimum criteria of both the ISO 15197:2003 and ISO 15197:2013 standards. The results from a user panel show that 100% of the respondents reported that the color touch screen, with its graphic user interface (GUI), is well labeled and easy to navigate. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge this is the first touch screen glucose meter and the first study where accuracy of a new BGMS has been measured against a true primary reference standard, namely IDLC-MS.

Development and Validation of a Rapid (13)C6-Glucose Isotope Dilution UPLC-MRM Mass Spectrometry Method for Use in Determining System Accuracy and Performance of Blood Glucose Monitoring Devices.

BACKGROUND: There is currently considerable discussion about the accuracy of blood glucose concentrations determined by personal blood glucose monitoring systems (BGMS). To date, the FDA has allowed new BGMS to demonstrate accuracy in reference to other glucose measurement systems that use the same or similar enzymatic-based methods to determine glucose concentration. These types of reference measurement procedures are only comparative in nature and are subject to the same potential sources of error in measurement and system perturbations as the device under evaluation. It would be ideal to have a completely orthogonal primary method that could serve as a true standard reference measurement procedure for establishing the accuracy of new BGMS. METHODS: An isotope-dilution liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (ID-UPLC-MRM) assay was developed using (13)C6-glucose as a stable isotope analogue to specifically measure glucose concentration in human plasma, and validated for use against NIST standard reference materials, and against fresh isolates of whole blood and plasma into which exogenous glucose had been spiked. Assay performance was quantified to NIST-traceable dry weight measures for both glucose and (13)C6-glucose. RESULTS: The newly developed assay method was shown to be rapid, highly specific, sensitive, accurate, and precise for measuring plasma glucose levels. The assay displayed sufficient dynamic range and linearity to measure across the range of both normal and diabetic blood glucose levels. Assay performance was measured to within the same uncertainty levels (<1%) as the NIST definitive method for glucose measurement in human serum. CONCLUSIONS: The newly developed ID UPLC-MRM assay can serve as a validated reference measurement procedure to which new BGMS can be assessed for glucose measurement performance.

Proteomic Profiling of a Biomimetic Drug Delivery Platform.

Current delivery platforms are typically designed for prolonged circulation that favors superior accumulation of the payload in the targeted tissue. The design of efficient surface modifications determines both a longer circulation time and targeting abilities of particles. The optimization of synthesis protocols to efficiently combine targeting molecules and elements that allow for an increased circulation time can be challenging and almost impossible when several functional elements are needed. On the other hand, in the last decade, the development of bioinspired technologies was proposed as a new approach with which to increase particle safety, biocompatibility and targeting, while maintaining the synthesis protocols simple and reproducible. Recently, we developed a new drug delivery system inspired by the biology of immune cells called leukolike vector (LLV) and formed by a nanoporous silicon core and a shell derived from the leucocyte cell membrane. The goal of this study is to investigate the protein content of the LLV. Here we report the proteomic profiling of the LLV and demonstrate that our approach can be used to modify the surface of synthetic particles with more than 150 leukocyte membrane associated proteins that determine particle safety, circulation time and targeting abilities towards inflamed endothelium.

Optimization and revision of the production process of the Necator americanus glutathione S-transferase 1 (Na-GST-1), the lead hookworm vaccine recombinant protein candidate.

Infection by the human hookworm Necator americanus is a leading cause of anemia and disability in the developing countries of Africa, Asia, and the Americas. In order to prevent childhood hookworm disease in resource poor settings, a recombinant vaccine is under development by the Sabin Vaccine Institute and Texas Children's Hospital Center for Vaccine Development, a Product Development Partnership (PDP). Previously, we reported on the expression and purification of a highly promising hookworm vaccine candidate, Na-GST-1, an N. americanus glutathione s-transferase expressed in Pichia pastoris (yeast), which led to production of 1.5 g of 95% pure recombinant protein at a 20L scale. (1) (,) (2) (,) (3) This yield and purity of Na-GST-1 was sufficient for early pilot manufacturing and initial phase 1 clinical testing. However, based on the number of doses which would be required to allow mass vaccination and a potential goal to deliver a vaccine as inexpensively as possible, a higher yield of expression of the recombinant antigen at the lowest possible cost is highly desirable. Here we report on modifications to the fermentation (upstream process) of the antigen expressed in P. pastoris, and to the purification (downstream process) of the recombinant protein that allowed for a 2-3-fold improvement in the final yield of Na-GST-1 purified protein. The major improvements included upstream process changes such as the addition of a sorbitol pulse and co-feed during methanol induction as well as an extension of the induction stage to approximately 96 hours; downstream process changes included modifying the UFDF to flat sheet with a 10 kDa Molecular Weight cut-off (MWCO), adjusting the capacity of an ion-exchange chromatography step utilizing a gradient elution as opposed to the original step elution, and altering the hydrophobic interaction chromatography conditions. The full process, as well as the purity and stability profiles of the target Na-GST-1, and its formulation on Alhydrogel(®), is described.

Characterization of p38 MAPK isoforms for drug resistance study using systems biology approach.

MOTIVATION: p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation plays an important role in resistance to chemotherapeutic cytotoxic drugs in treating multiple myeloma (MM). However, how the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway is involved in drug resistance, in particular the roles that the various p38 isoforms play, remains largely unknown. METHOD: To explore the underlying mechanisms, we developed a novel systems biology approach by integrating liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and reverse phase protein array data from human MM cell lines with computational pathway models in which the unknown parameters were inferred using a proposed novel algorithm called modularized factor graph. RESULTS: New mechanisms predicted by our models suggest that combined activation of various p38 isoforms may result in drug resistance in MM via regulating the related pathways including extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway and NFкB pathway. ERK pathway regulating cell growth is synergistically regulated by p38δ isoform, whereas nuclear factor kappa B (NFкB) pathway regulating cell apoptosis is synergistically regulated by p38α isoform. This finding that p38δ isoform promotes the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in MM cells treated with bortezomib was validated by western blotting. Based on the predicted mechanisms, we further screened drug combinations in silico and found that a promising drug combination targeting ERK1/2 and NFκB might reduce the effects of drug resistance in MM cells. This study provides a framework of a systems biology approach to studying drug resistance and drug combination selection. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION: RPPA experimental Data and Matlab source codes of modularized factor graph for parameter estimation are freely available online at http://ctsb.is.wfubmc.edu/publications/modularized-factor-graph.php.

Evolution of diversity in epidemics revealed by analysis of the human bacterial pathogen group A Streptococcus.

Advancements in high-throughput, high-volume data generating techniques increasingly present us with opportunities to probe new areas of biology. In this work we assessed the extent to which four closely related and genetically representative strains of group A Streptococcus causing epidemic disease have differentiated from one another. Comparative genome sequencing, expression microarray analysis, and proteomic studies were used in parallel to assess strain variation. The extent of phenotypic differentiation was unexpectedly large. We found significant associations between genetic polymorphisms and alterations in gene expression allowing us to estimate the frequency with which specific types of polymorphisms alter gene transcription. We identified polymorphisms in the gene (ropB) encoding the RopB regulator that associate with altered transcription of speB and production of the SpeB protein, a critical secreted protease virulence factor. Although these four epidemic strains are closely related, a key discovery is that accumulation of modest genetic changes has rapidly resulted in significant strain phenotypic differentiation, including the extracellular proteome that contains multiple virulence factors. These data provide enhanced understanding of genetic events resulting in strain variation in bacterial epidemics.

Developmental regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis and function in the mouse mammary gland during a prolonged lactation cycle.

The regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis and function in the lactating mammary cell is poorly understood. The goal of this study was to use proteomics to relate temporal changes in mammary cell mitochondrial function during lactation to changes in the proteins that make up this organelle. The hypothesis tested was that changes in mammary cell mitochondrial biogenesis and function during lactation would be accounted for by coordinated changes in the proteins of the electron transport chain and that some of these proteins might be linked by their expression patterns to PPARGC1α and AMP kinase. The mitochondrial proteome was studied along with markers of mitochondrial biogenesis and function in mammary tissue collected from mice over the course of a single prolonged lactation cycle. Mammary tissue concentrations of AMP and ADP were increased (P < 0.05) during early lactation and then declined with prolonged lactation. Similar changes were also observed for mitochondrial ATP synthesis activity, mitochondrial mass and DNA copy number. Analysis of the mammary cell mitochondrial proteome identified 244 unique proteins. Of these, only two proteins of the electron transport chain were found to increase during early lactation. In contrast, coordinated changes in numerous electron transport chain proteins were observed both during mid- and late lactation. There were six proteins that could be directly linked to PPARGC1α through network analysis. Abundance of PPARGC-1α and phosphorylation of AMP kinase was highest on day 2 postpartum. The results suggest that the increases in mammary mitochondria ATP synthesis activity during early lactation results from changes in only a limited number proteins. In addition, decreases in a handful of proteins linked to lipid oxidation could be temporally linked to decreases in PPARGC1α and phospho-AMP kinase suggesting potential roles for these proteins in coordinating mammary gland metabolism during early lactation.

Chemical composition-oriented receptor selectivity of L5, a naturally occurring atherogenic low-density lipoprotein.

Anion-exchange chromatography resolves human plasma low-density lipoprotein (LDL) into 5 subfractions, with increasing negative surface charge in the direction of L1 to L5. Unlike the harmless L1 to L4, the exclusively atherogenic L5 is rejected by the normal LDL receptor (LDLR) but endocytosed into vascular endothelial cells through the lectin-like oxidized LDL receptor-1 (LOX-1). Analysis with SDS-PAGE and 2-dimensional electrophoresis showed that the protein framework of L1 was composed mainly of apolipoprotein (apo) B100, with an isoelectric point (pI) of 6.620. There was a progressively increased association of additional proteins, including apoE (pI 5.5), apoAI (pI 5.4), apoCIII (pI 5.1), and apo(a) (pI 5.5), from L1 to L5. LC/MSE was used to quantify protein distribution in all subfractions. On the basis of weight percentages, L1 contained 99% apoB-100 and trace amounts of other proteins. In contrast, L5 contained 60% apoB100 and substantially increased amounts of apo(a), apoE, apoAI, and apoCIII. The compositional characteristics contribute to L5's electronegativity, rendering it unrecognizable by LDLR. LOX-1, which has a high affinity for negatively charged ligands, is known to mediate the signaling of proinflammatory cytokines. Thus, the chemical composition-oriented receptor selectivity hinders normal metabolism of L5, enhancing its atherogenicity through abnormal receptors, such as LOX-1.

Role of NonO-histone interaction in TNFalpha-suppressed prolyl-4-hydroxylase alpha1.

Inflammation is a key process in cardiovascular diseases. The extracellular matrix (ECM) of the vasculature is a major target of inflammatory cytokines, and TNFalpha regulates ECM metabolism by affecting collagen production. In this study, we have examined the pathways mediating TNFalpha-induced suppression of prolyl-4 hydroxylase alpha1 (P4Halpha1), the rate-limiting isoform of P4H responsible for procollagen hydroxylation, maturation, and organization. Using human aortic smooth muscle cells, we found that TNFalpha activated the MKK4-JNK1 pathway, which induced histone (H) 4 lysine 12 acetylation within the TNFalpha response element in the P4Halpha1 promoter. The acetylated-H4 then recruited a transcription factor, NonO, which, in turn, recruited HDACs and induced H3 lysine 9 deacetylation, thereby inhibiting transcription of the P4Halpha1 promoter. Furthermore, we found that TNFalpha oxidized DJ-1, which may be essential for the NonO-P4Halpha1 interaction because treatment with gene specific siRNA to knockout DJ-1 eliminated the TNFalpha-induced NonO-P4Halpha1 interaction and its suppression. Our findings may be relevant to aortic aneurysm and dissection and the stability of the fibrous cap of atherosclerotic plaque in which collagen metabolism is important in arterial remodeling. Defining this cytokine-mediated regulatory pathway may provide novel molecular targets for therapeutic intervention in preventing plaque rupture and acute coronary occlusion.

Proteomic identification of in vivo substrates for matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 reveals a mechanism for resolution of inflammation.

Clearance of allergic inflammatory cells from the lung through matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) is necessary to prevent lethal asphyxiation, but mechanistic insight into this essential homeostatic process is lacking. In this study, we have used a proteomics approach to determine how MMPs promote egression of lung inflammatory cells through the airway. MMP2- and MMP9-dependent cleavage of individual Th2 chemokines modulated their chemotactic activity; however, the net effect of complementing bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of allergen-challenged MMP2(-/-)/MMP9(-/-) mice with active MMP2 and MMP9 was to markedly enhance its overall chemotactic activity. In the bronchoalveolar fluid of MMP2(-/-)/MMP9(-/-) allergic mice, we identified several chemotactic molecules that possessed putative MMP2 and MMP9 cleavage sites and were present as higher molecular mass species. In vitro cleavage assays and mass spectroscopy confirmed that three of the identified proteins, Ym1, S100A8, and S100A9, were substrates of MMP2, MMP9, or both. Function-blocking Abs to S100 proteins significantly altered allergic inflammatory cell migration into the alveolar space. Thus, an important effect of MMPs is to differentially modify chemotactic bioactivity through proteolytic processing of proteins present in the airway. These findings provide a molecular mechanism to explain the enhanced clearance of lung inflammatory cells through the airway and reveal a novel approach to target new therapies for asthma.