ABSTRACT
Abstract Avian malaria is one of the most important diseases of captive penguins. We employed morphometric techniques to evaluate hepatic hemosiderosis in rehabilitating wild Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) that were negative (n = 9) or naturally infected by different subgenera of Plasmodium spp. (n = 24), according with: Plasmodium subgenera (Haemamoeba, Huffia, Other lineages, and Unidentified lineages), severity of Plasmodium histopathological lesions, and concurrent diseases, age class (juvenile or adult plumage), sex (male, female or not determined), body score (emaciated, thin, good, excellent, not available), molt, presence or absence of oil contamination upon admission, iron supplementation, and rehabilitation center. The percentage of the area occupied by hemosiderin was called 'Index of Hepatic Hemosiderosis (IHH)'. Plasmodium-positive females presented significantly higher IHH values (17.53 ± 12.95%) than males (7.20 ± 4.25%; p = 0.041). We observed higher levels of congestion (p = 0.0182) and pneumonia (p = 0.0250) severity between Unidentified lineages vs. Huffia. We believe that the hepatic hemosiderosis observed in this study was multifactorial, the result of pathological processes caused by malaria, molting, hemoglobin and myoglobin catabolism during migration, anemia, concomitant diseases, and iron supplementation, all possibly potentiated by decreased liver mass. Further studies are needed to clarify the mechanisms of these hypotheses.
Resumo Malária aviária é uma das mais relevantes doenças em pinguins cativos. Foram aplicadas técnicas morfométricas para avaliar a hemossiderose hepática em pinguins-de-Magalhães (Spheniscus magellanicus ) de vida livre em reabilitação negativos (n = 9) e naturalmente infectados por diferentes subgêneros de Plasmodium spp. (n = 24), quanto a: subgênero de Plasmodium (Haemamoeba , Huffia, Outras Linhagens, e Linhagens não identificadas), severidade das lesões histopatológicas causadas por Plasmodium e doenças concomitantes, faixa etária (plumagem juvenil ou adulta), sexo (macho, fêmea, indeterminado), condição corporal (emaciado, magro, bom, excelente, indisponível), muda, presença/ausência de óleo a admissão, suplementação de ferro, e centro de reabilitação. A porcentagem da área ocupada por hemossiderina foi denominada "Índice de Hemossiderose Hepática (IHH)". Fêmeas Plasmodium -positivas apresentaram IHH significativamente mais elevado que machos, respectivamente, 17,53 ± 12,95% e 7,20 ± 4,25% (p = 0,041). Níveis mais elevados de congestão (p = 0,0182) e pneumonia (p = 0,0250) foram observados entre Linhagens não identificadas vs. Huffia. Possivelmente, a hemossiderose hepática observada nesse estudo seja multifatorial, resultado de processos patológicos causados por malária, muda, catabolismo de hemoglobina e mioglobina durante a migração, anemia, doenças concomitantes e suplementação de ferro, potencialmente intensificados por massa hepática reduzida. Estudos complementares são necessários para esclarecer os mecanismos de tais hipóteses.
Subject(s)
Animals , Male , Female , Plasmodium/classification , Bird Diseases/parasitology , Spheniscidae/parasitology , Hemosiderosis/parasitology , Liver Diseases/parasitology , Malaria, Avian/parasitology , Bird Diseases/pathology , Severity of Illness Index , Hemosiderosis/pathology , Liver Diseases/pathology , Malaria, Avian/complications , Malaria, Avian/pathology , Animals, WildABSTRACT
[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209007.].
ABSTRACT
Avian malaria is one of the most important diseases of captive penguins. We employed morphometric techniques to evaluate hepatic hemosiderosis in rehabilitating wild Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) that were negative (n = 9) or naturally infected by different subgenera of Plasmodium spp. (n = 24), according with: Plasmodium subgenera (Haemamoeba, Huffia, Other lineages, and Unidentified lineages), severity of Plasmodium histopathological lesions, and concurrent diseases, age class (juvenile or adult plumage), sex (male, female or not determined), body score (emaciated, thin, good, excellent, not available), molt, presence or absence of oil contamination upon admission, iron supplementation, and rehabilitation center. The percentage of the area occupied by hemosiderin was called 'Index of Hepatic Hemosiderosis (IHH)'. Plasmodium-positive females presented significantly higher IHH values (17.53 ± 12.95%) than males (7.20 ± 4.25%; p = 0.041). We observed higher levels of congestion (p = 0.0182) and pneumonia (p = 0.0250) severity between Unidentified lineages vs. Huffia. We believe that the hepatic hemosiderosis observed in this study was multifactorial, the result of pathological processes caused by malaria, molting, hemoglobin and myoglobin catabolism during migration, anemia, concomitant diseases, and iron supplementation, all possibly potentiated by decreased liver mass. Further studies are needed to clarify the mechanisms of these hypotheses.
Subject(s)
Bird Diseases/parasitology , Hemosiderosis/parasitology , Liver Diseases/parasitology , Malaria, Avian/parasitology , Plasmodium/classification , Spheniscidae/parasitology , Animals , Animals, Wild , Bird Diseases/pathology , Female , Hemosiderosis/pathology , Liver Diseases/pathology , Malaria, Avian/complications , Malaria, Avian/pathology , Male , Severity of Illness IndexABSTRACT
The main motivation for this study was to determine the occurrence of Toxoplasma gondii, a cosmopolitan widespread zoonotic parasite distribution that can infect a wide variety of mammals and birds, in Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) in Brazil. In recent decades there has been a significant increase in the number of penguins originating from Argentinian and Chilean Patagonia, where these birds are born, that arrive on the Brazilian coast, where many of them are stranded and rescued. Tissue samples were collected from 330 individuals surveyed from 2012-2015 at the Institute for Marine Animal Research and Rehabilitation (IPRAM) located in Cariacica, state of Espirito Santo, Brazil. Serum were collected from 145 animals surveyed in 2015 for the detection of anti-T. gondii antibodies using the Modified Agglutination Test (MAT ≥20) and 18 birds were positive, with titers of 20 (7 birds), 40 (9 birds) and 80 (2 birds). Mouse bioassay for the isolation of T. gondii was performed using tissues from 54 penguins that were also surveyed in 2015, but no isolates were obtained. DNA from tissue samples of 330 individuals was PCR amplified and sequenced to detect tissue cyst forming coccidians by using pan sarcocystids-directed primers (based on 18S rDNA). These samples were from animals surveyed in 2015 and from frozen stocked tissues from animals surveyed in the years 2012 and 2013. The positives were PCR amplified and sequenced with genus Sarcocystis-specific primers (based on internal transcribed spacer 1, RNA polymerase beta subunit coding gene, and cytochrome B coding gene) and with Sarcocystis falcatula/Sarcocystis neurona- specific primers (based on surface antigens SAG2, SAG3 and SAG4). Sixteen (3.0%) of pectoral muscle samples were positive by all the seven molecular markers and all the samples were identical to each other. Organisms close related to Sarcocystis falcatula were confirmed in all cases. This is the first report on molecular detection of infection by S. falcatula-related organisms and the first report of seropositivity for T. gondii in free-living Magellanic penguins in Brazil. Felids and didephid opossums are definitive hosts of T. gondii and S. falcatula, respectively. Where the penguins acquire the infective forms of the parasites shed by the terrestrial mammals remains to be elucidated.
