Associations between motor competence and physical activity levels of children with intellectual disabilities and/or autism spectrum disorder: Movement matters.

Motor competence is important for lifelong physical activity (PA). The current study aimed to examine associations between PA and motor competence. In total, 43 children aged 7-12 years with intellectual disabilities and/or autism spectrum disorder completed anthropometric measures, the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2, and wore a wrist accelerometer to capture total PA, moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA), average acceleration, and intensity gradient. No significant associations were found between PA outcomes and motor competence. Motor competence performance was commonly 'below average' or 'average'. The weakest subtests were upper limb coordination and strength. The strongest subtest was running speed and agility. Total weekly MVPA was 336.1 ± 150.3 min, higher than UK recommendations of 120-180 per week for disabled children and young people. Larger scale studies are needed to better understand the relationship between PA and motor competence. Future research should also consider the influence of environmental factors on PA in this group.

Self-Esteem, Meaningful Experiences and the Rocky Road-Contexts of Physical Activity That Impact Mental Health in Adolescents.

Abundant evidence shows that physical activity benefits adolescents' mental health and wellbeing. Quantitative evidence has shown that adolescents engaging in leisure time physical activity, a number of sports, and team sport, display better mental health outcomes than their peers. The specific contextual factors that contribute to increased mental health and wellbeing through physical activity are, as yet, unconfirmed. The purpose of this study was to identify the contexts of physical activity and sport that positively impact mental health and wellbeing as perceived by adolescents. A sample of 58 adolescents participated in 13 focus groups discussing various factors related to physical activity, sport and mental health. Participants brought an object that represented physical activity and an image that represented wellbeing to each focus group to aid in the discussion and representation of both. An inductive thematic analysis was conducted on transcripts of the focus groups using a six-phase approach. Five key themes were identified: (1) achievements and improvements leading to increased self-esteem; (2) the importance of meaningful experiences, a sense of belonging and contributions to identity; (3) development of resilience and responding to setbacks; (4) social connectedness and relatedness, and (5) an opportunity to experience mindfulness, distraction and flow-states. In order to enhance and support wellbeing through physical activity, adolescents should be encouraged and provided with opportunities to engage in enjoyable activities with people with whom they experience a sense of belonging, where there is an opportunity to experience mastery and improvement and that includes an element of autonomy or choice.

Physical activity, mental health and well-being of adults during initial COVID-19 containment strategies: A multi-country cross-sectional analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To assess physical activity (PA), mental health and well-being of adults in the United Kingdom (UK), Ireland, New Zealand and Australia during the initial stages of National governments' Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) containment responses. DESIGN: Observational, cross-sectional. METHODS: An online survey was disseminated to adults (n=8,425; 44.5±14.8y) residing in the UK, Ireland, New Zealand and Australia within the first 2-6 weeks of government-mandated COVID-19 restrictions. Main outcome measures included: Stages of Change scale for exercise behaviour change; International Physical Activity Questionnaire (short-form); World Health Organisation-5 Well-being Index; and the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale-9. RESULTS: Participants who reported a negative change in exercise behaviour from before initial COVID-19 restrictions to during the initial COVID-19 restrictions demonstrated poorer mental health and well-being compared to those demonstrating either a positive-or no change in their exercise behaviour (p<0.001). Whilst women reported more positive changes in exercise behaviour, young people (18-29y) reported more negative changes (both p<0.001). Individuals who had more positive exercise behaviours reported better mental health and well-being (p<0.001). Although there were no differences in PA between countries, individuals in New Zealand reported better mental health and well-being (p<0.001). CONCLUSION: The initial COVID-19 restrictions have differentially impacted upon PA habits of individuals based upon their age and sex, and therefore have important implications for international policy and guideline recommendations. Public health interventions that encourage PA should target specific groups (e.g., men, young adults) who are most vulnerable to the negative effects of physical distancing and/or self-isolation.

Motor competence assessments for children with intellectual disabilities and/or autism: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: Gross motor competence is essential for daily life functioning and participation in physical activities. Prevalence of gross motor competence in children with intellectual disabilities (ID) and/or autism is unclear. This systematic review aimed to identify appropriate assessments for children with ID and/or autism. DESIGN & DATA SOURCES: An electronic literature search was conducted using the EBSCOhost platform searching MEDLINE, Education Research Complete, ERIC, CINAHL Plus and SPORTDiscus databases. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Included studies sampled children with ID and/or autism aged between 1 and 18 yrs, used field-based gross motor competence assessments, reported measurement properties, and were published in English. The utility of assessments were appraised for validity, reliability, responsiveness and feasibility. RESULTS: The initial search produced 3182 results, with 291 full text articles screened. 13 articles including 10 assessments of motor competence were included in this systematic review. There was limited reporting across measurement properties, mostly for responsiveness and some aspects of validity. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 followed by The Test of Gross Motor Development-2 demonstrated the greatest levels of evidence for validity and reliability. Feasibility results were varied, most instruments required little additional equipment (n=8) and were suitable for a school setting, but, additional training (n=7) was needed to score and interpret the results. CONCLUSION: This review found the BOT-2 followed by the TGMD-2 to be the most psychometrically appropriate motor competency assessments for children with ID and/or autism in field-based settings. Motor competence assessment research is limited for these cohorts and more research is needed. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42019129464.

A Narrative Review of Motor Competence in Children and Adolescents: What We Know and What We Need to Find Out.

Lack of physical activity is a global public health problem causing not only morbidity and premature mortality, but it is also a major economic burden worldwide. One of the cornerstones of a physically active lifestyle is Motor Competence (MC). MC is a complex biocultural attribute and therefore, its study requires a multi-sectoral, multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary approach. MC is a growing area of research, especially in children and adolescents due to its positive association with a plethora of health and developmental outcomes. Many questions, however, remain to be answered in this field of research, with regard to: (i) Health and Developmental-related Associations of MC; (ii) Assessment of MC; (iii) Prevalence and Trends of MC; (iv) Correlates and Determinants of MC; (v) MC Interventions, and (vi) Translating MC Research into Practice and Policy. This paper presents a narrative review of the literature, summarizing current knowledge, identifying key research gaps and presenting questions for future investigation on MC in children and adolescents. This is a collaborative effort from the International Motor Competence Network (IMCNetwork) a network of academics and researchers aiming to promote international collaborative research and knowledge translation in the expansive field of MC. The knowledge and deliverables generated by addressing and answering the aforementioned research questions on MC presented in this review have the potential to shape the ways in which researchers and practitioners promote MC and physical activity in children and adolescents across the world.

The Youth-Physical Activity Towards Health (Y-PATH) intervention: Results of a 24 month cluster randomised controlled trial.

Low levels of physical activity in youth are an issue internationally, with the age related decline in levels over the adolescent period of particular concern. This study evaluated a multi-component school-based intervention (Y-PATH: Youth-Physical Activity Towards Health), focused on halting the age-related decline in physical activity of youth in early adolescence. A cluster randomized controlled trial in 20 post primary schools (10 control, 10 intervention) was conducted. Data were collected from all 20 schools at baseline (2013), and 12 months (2014), and from 10 of these schools (5 intervention) at 24 months (2015). The setting was mixed gender post primary schools residing in the greater area of Dublin, Ireland. Principals from each school were asked to nominate one first year class group attending their school in September 2013 to participate in the study (N = 564). Intervention schools implemented the Y-PATH whole school intervention, comprising teacher component, parent component, and PE component; while control schools continued with usual care. The main outcome measure was accelerometer derived average minutes of daily moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Data were analysed from October 2015 -November 2017. At baseline 490 participants were assessed (mean age 12.78y ± .42). Results of the multilevel regression analysis confirmed that there was a significant time intervention effect, and this was predominantly contributed by the difference between control and intervention groups within females. Findings support the case for national dissemination of the Y-PATH intervention so that the knowledge learned can be translated to routine practice in schools.

Acceptability and Feasibility of Single-Component Primary School Physical Activity Interventions to Inform the AS:Sk Project.

Multi-component school-based interventions provide physical activity (PA) opportunities for children but are often difficult for schools to execute and may not be implemented as intended. The primary aim of this study was to explore the acceptability and feasibility of three brief single-component primary school PA interventions targeting 9⁻10-year-old children. The secondary aim was to examine the effectiveness of the interventions on increasing PA levels and reducing sedentary time. The single-component interventions included active classroom breaks (AB; 3 schools; n = 119 children) Born to Move (BTM) exercise videos (2 schools; n = 50 children), and playground supervisory staff training (2 schools; n = 56 children). Qualitative data from participating children (n = 211), class teachers (n = 6), and playground supervisory staff (n = 8) explored the experiences, acceptability, and feasibility of each intervention component. Accelerometers were worn by 225 children during the last week of implementation. Teachers reported that they were able to implement ABs daily, but BTM videos were more difficult to implement daily because of accessing sufficient space. Playground staff reported difficulties in implementing activities due to children's age and competing responsibilities on the staffs' time. Children reported that the ABs and BTM videos were enjoyable. During half hour time windows, including the ABs and BTM videos, children engaged in 4.8 min and 8.6 min of moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA) on average, respectively. ABs and BTM videos positively affected MVPA. ABs were feasible to implement; however, teachers faced some barriers in implementing the BTM videos. Feasibility of playground interventions may be dependent on staff responsibilities and age of the children.

Evaluation of a Pilot School-Based Physical Activity Clustered Randomised Controlled Trial-Active Schools: Skelmersdale.

Schools are key environments in which physical activity (PA) can be promoted. Various strategies and opportunities should be used to engage children in PA within schools. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the multi-component Active Schools: Skelmersdale (AS:Sk) pilot intervention on children's PA and sedentary time (ST). The AS:Sk intervention was implemented for eight weeks in four schools with three control schools continuing normal practice. It consisted of eight components: active breaks, bounce at the bell, 'Born To Move' videos, Daily Mile or 100 Mile Club, playground activity challenge cards, physical education teacher training, newsletters, and activity homework. Child-level measures were collected at baseline and follow-up, including objectively measured PA. After accounting for confounding variables, the intervention had a significant effect on school day ST which was significantly less for the intervention children by 9 min per day compared to the control group. The AS:Sk pilot intervention was effective in reducing school day ST but significant changes in PA were negligible. To increase the efficacy of the current and future school-based interventions, authors should focus on implementation and process evaluations to better understand how schools are implementing intervention components.

Outcomes of the Y-PATH Randomized Controlled Trial: Can a School-Based Intervention Improve Fundamental Movement Skill Proficiency in Adolescent Youth?

BACKGROUND: Multicomponent, school-based interventions are considered to be an effective method for improving fundamental movement skill (FMS) proficiency levels and physical activity (PA) among youth. This study aimed to evaluate if the youth-physical activity toward health intervention can improve FMS proficiency in a randomized controlled trial among adolescents. METHODS: Participants were 482 adolescents aged 12-13 years from 20 schools. For an academic year, participants in 10 schools received the youth-physical activity toward health intervention. The remaining 10 schools received their regular weekly physical education lessons. Fifteen FMS were assessed using validated tools; their PA was assessed using accelerometers; their height, weight, and cardiorespiratory fitness were also recorded. Outcomes were assessed at baseline, postintervention, and 3 months later at retention. Multilevel analysis was performed using MLwiN 2.35 software. RESULTS: Significant intervention effects across time were observed for total object control (P < .0001; ß = 2.04; 95% confidence interval, 1.16 to 2.92) and total locomotor (P < .0001; ß = 2.13; 95% confidence interval, 1.44 to 2.82), with the greatest improvements evident for total FMS score (P < .0001; ß = 4.04; 95% confidence interval, 2.39 to 5.69). The effects of the intervention were significant and positive for all children in the intervention group regardless of gender, weight status, or PA level (P = .03 to < .0001). CONCLUSIONS: Youth-physical activity toward health has the potential to improve FMS proficiency among adolescents regardless of gender, weight status, and activity levels.

Fitness, fatness and the reallocation of time between children's daily movement behaviours: an analysis of compositional data.

BACKGROUND: Movement behaviours performed over a finite period such as a 24 h day are compositional data. Compositional data exist in a constrained simplex geometry that is incongruent with traditional multivariate analytical techniques. However, the expression of compositional data as log-ratio co-ordinate systems transfers them to the unconstrained real space, where standard multivariate statistics can be used. This study aimed to use a compositional data analysis approach to examine the adiposity and cardiorespiratory fitness predictions of time reallocations between children's daily movement behaviours. METHODS: This study used cross-sectional data from the Active Schools: Skelmersdale study, which involved Year 5 children from a low-income community in northwest England (n = 169). Measures included accelerometer-derived 24 h activity (sedentary time [ST], light physical activity [LPA], moderate-to-vigorous physical activity [MVPA], and sleep), cardiorespiratory fitness determined by the 20 m shuttle run test, objectively measured height, weight and waist circumference (from which zBMI and percent waist circumference-to-height ratio (%WHtR) were derived) and sociodemographic covariates. Log-ratio multiple linear regression models were used to predict adiposity and fitness for the mean movement behaviour composition, and for new compositions where fixed durations of time had been reallocated from one behaviour to another, while the remaining behaviours were unchanged. Predictions were also made for reallocations of fixed durations of time using the mean composition of three different weight status categories (underweight, normal-weight, and overweight/obese) as the starting point. RESULTS: Replacing MVPA with any other movement behaviour around the mean movement composition predicted higher adiposity and lower CRF. The log-ratio model predictions were asymmetrical: when time was reallocated to MVPA from sleep, ST, or LPA, the estimated detriments to fitness and adiposity were larger in magnitude than the estimated benefits of time reallocation from MVPA to sleep, ST or LPA. The greatest differences in fitness and fatness for reallocation of fixed duration of MVPA were predicted at the mean composition of overweight/obese children. CONCLUSIONS: Findings reinforce the key role of MVPA for children's health. Reallocating time from ST and LPA to MVPA in children is advocated in school, home, and community settings.

Predictors of Segmented School Day Physical Activity and Sedentary Time in Children from a Northwest England Low-Income Community.

BACKGROUND: Schools have been identified as important settings for health promotion through physical activity participation, particularly as children are insufficiently active for health. The aim of this study was to investigate the child and school-level influences on children's physical activity levels and sedentary time during school hours in a sample of children from a low-income community; Methods: One hundred and eighty-six children (110 boys) aged 9-10 years wore accelerometers for 7 days, with 169 meeting the inclusion criteria of 16 h∙day-1 for a minimum of three week days. Multilevel prediction models were constructed to identify significant predictors of sedentary time, light, and moderate to vigorous physical activity during school hour segments. Child-level predictors (sex, weight status, maturity offset, cardiorespiratory fitness, physical activity self-efficacy, physical activity enjoyment) and school-level predictors (number on roll, playground area, provision score) were entered into the models; Results: Maturity offset, fitness, weight status, waist circumference-to-height ratio, sedentary time, moderate to vigorous physical activity, number of children on roll and playground area significantly predicted physical activity and sedentary time; Conclusions: Research should move towards considering context-specific physical activity and its correlates to better inform intervention strategies.

The relationship between fundamental movement skill proficiency and physical self-confidence among adolescents.

This study aims to assess fundamental movement skill (FMS) proficiency, physical self-confidence levels, and the relationship between these variables and gender differences among adolescents. Three hundred and ninety five adolescents aged 13.78 years (SD = ±1.2) from 20 schools were involved in this study. The Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd Edition (TGMD), TGMD-2 and Victorian Skills Manual were used to assess 15 FMS. Participants' physical self-confidence was also assessed using a valid skill-specific scale. A significant correlation was observed between FMS proficiency and physical self-confidence for females only (r = 0.305, P < 0.001). Males rated themselves as having significantly higher physical self-confidence levels than females (P = 0.001). Males scored significantly higher than females in FMS proficiency (P < 0.05), and the lowest physical self-confidence group were significantly less proficient at FMS than the medium (P < 0.001) and high physical self-confidence groups (P < 0.05). This information not only highlights those in need of assistance to develop their FMS but will also facilitate in the development of an intervention which aims to improve physical self-confidence and FMS proficiency.

The Age-Related Association of Movement in Irish Adolescent Youth.

(1) Background: Research has shown that post-primary Irish youth are insufficiently active and fail to reach a level of proficiency across basic movement skills. The purpose of the current research was to gather cross-sectional baseline data on Irish adolescent youth, specifically the prevalence of movement skills and patterns, in order to generate an overall perspective of movement within the first three years (Junior Certificate level) of post-primary education. (2) Methods: Data were collected on adolescents (N = 181; mean age: 14.42 ± 0.98 years), attending two, mixed-gender schools. Data collection included 10 fundamental movement skills (FMS) and the seven tests within the Functional Movement Screen (FMS™). The data set was analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0 for Windows. (3) Results: Overall, levels of actual mastery within fundamental and functional movement were low. There were statistically significant age-related differences observed, with a progressive decline as age increased in both the object control (p = 0.002) FMS sub-domain, and the in-line lunge (p = 0.048) test of the FMS™. (4) Conclusion: In summary, we found emerging evidence that school year group is significantly associated with mastery of movement skills and patterns. Results from the current study suggest that developing a specifically tailored movement-oriented intervention would be a strategic step towards improving the low levels of adolescent fundamental and functional movement proficiency.

A cross-validation study of the TGMD-2: The case of an adolescent population.

OBJECTIVES: This study proposes an extension of a widely used test evaluating fundamental movement skills proficiency to an adolescent population, with a specific emphasis on validity and reliability for this older age group. DESIGN: Cross-sectional observational study. METHODS: A total of 844 participants (n=456 male, 12.03±0.49) participated in this study. The 12 fundamental movement skills of the TGMD-2 were assessed. Inter-rater reliability was examined to ensure a minimum of 95% consistency between coders. Confirmatory factor analysis was undertaken with a one-factor model (all 12 skills) and two-factor model (6 locomotor skills and 6 object-control skills) as proposed by Ulrich et al. (2000). The model fit was examined using χ2, TLI, CFI and RMSEA. Test-retest reliability was carried out with a subsample of 35 participants. RESULTS: The test-retest reliability reached Intraclass Correlation Coefficient of 0.78 (locomotor), 0.76 (object related) and 0.91 (gross motor skill proficiency). The confirmatory factor analysis did not display a good fit for either the one-factor or two-factor model due to a really low contribution of several skills. A reduction in the number of skills to just seven (run, gallop, hop, horizontal jump, bounce, kick and roll) revealed an overall good fit by TLI, CFI and RMSEA measures. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed new model offers the possibility of longitudinal studies to track the maturation of fundamental movement skills across the child and adolescent spectrum, while also giving researchers a valid assessment to tool to evaluate adolescent fundamental movement skills proficiency level.

A non-equivalent group pilot trial of a school-based physical activity and fitness intervention for 10-11 year old english children: born to move.

BACKGROUND: PE lessons are the formal opportunity in schools for promotion of physical activity and fitness. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a pilot PE intervention on physical activity, fitness, and psychosocial outcomes. METHODS: Participants were 139 children aged 10-11 years from four schools. For six weeks children in two schools received a twice-weekly pilot 'Born to Move' (BTM) physical activity (PA) and fitness intervention alongside one regular PE lesson. Children in the two comparison (COM) schools received their regular twice weekly PE lessons. Outcomes were lesson time and whole-day light (LPA), moderate (MPA), vigorous (VPA), and MVPA, and sedentary time, muscular fitness, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), and lesson-specific perceived exertion, enjoyment, and perceived competence. Outcomes were assessed at baseline (T0), midway through the intervention (T1), and at the end (T2) using ANOVAs and ANCOVAs. Intervention fidelity was measured using child and teacher surveys at T2 and analysed using Chi-square tests. RESULTS: The BTM group engaged in moderate PA for significantly more lesson time (29.4 %) than the COM group (25.8 %; p = .009, d = .53). The amount of moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) during the T1 BTM lesson contributed 14.0 % to total MVPA, which was significantly more than the COM group's T1 PE lesson (11.4 %; p < .001, d = .47). The BTM group were significantly more active during the whole-day (p < .05) and the school-day (p < .01). In both groups push-up test performance increased (p < .001) and CRF test performance decreased (p < .01). Perceived exertion, enjoyment, and perceived competence increased in both groups (p < .05), but the BTM group rated their enjoyment of the T1 BTM lesson higher than the COM group rated their PE lesson (p = .02, d = .56). The children's and teachers' responses to the intervention indicated that the delivery aims of enjoyment, engagement, inclusivity, and challenge were satisfied. CONCLUSIONS: The BTM pilot programme has potential to positively impact on physical activity, fitness, and psychosocial outcomes. Further, BTM was enjoyed by the children, and valued by the teachers. This study can inform the design of a modified larger-scale cluster RCT evaluation.

Where does the time go? Patterns of physical activity in adolescent youth.

OBJECTIVES: To explore daily patterns of physical activity in early adolescent youth, and identify whether patterns differed across varying activity levels. DESIGN: Cross-sectional observational study. METHODS: Adolescent youth (n=715, 11.8-14.4 years) were asked to wear an Actigraph accelerometer for a 9-day period. Average daily and hourly minutes spent in moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were calculated for each participant. Participants were grouped into sex-specific quartiles (Q) based on average daily MVPA accumulation (Q4 most active, Q1 least active). Principal components analysis was used to identify, from hourly MVPA data, distinct time blocks for Weekday and Weekend days. Mixed between-within ANOVA's were conducted separately by gender to assess the impact of Quartile grouping on minutes of MVPA across the distinct time blocks. RESULTS: Males accumulated significantly more minutes of MVPA daily than females (55.3±21.6min, versus 47.4±18.1min). Principal Components Analysis revealed three distinct time components for MVPA during weekdays, and weekend days. The total difference between Q4 and Q1 was greatest 'Weekend Afternoons' for Males (22min), and 'Weekend Midday' for females (12.8min); with Q4 accumulating significantly more MVPA in these time periods than the other three Quartiles (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: This study points to the weekend midday and afternoon periods as particular time blocks to target for intervening with inactive youth. Future research should examine the reasons why some youth choose to be active during these particular periods while others do not, with a view to developing appropriate strategies for intervention.

Physical self-confidence levels of adolescents: Scale reliability and validity.

OBJECTIVES: To establish reliability, content validity and concurrent validity of the physical self-confidence scale among adolescents. Demonstrate the use of this scale to assess the physical self-confidence of adolescents across genders at performing specific fundamental movement skills (FMS). DESIGN: Three hundred and seventy six adolescents were involved in this study. A 15 item scale was developed to assess physical self-confidence. METHODS: The scale was developed based on 15 specific FMS. Experts in the field reviewed the scale to ensure content validity. The reliability of the scale was assessed on a sub-sample of 67 participants who answered the scale 7-days apart. Concurrent validity was assessed on the sub-sample using the Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP) as a comparative tool. 376 adolescents completed the physical self-confidence scale (mean age=13.78, SD=±1.21, males n=193) to assess gender differences, and also their levels of physical self-confidence across all skills. RESULTS: An Intra Class Correlation indicated excellent test retest reliability for the scale with an overall r=0.92. Content validity and concurrent validity were also good, with the scale achieving a correlation coefficient of 0.72 with the PSPP. Males possess significantly higher physical self-confidence than females across all items. CONCLUSIONS: This scale is the first reliable and valid tool which specifically measures physical self-confidence in performing FMS among adolescents. The results highlight gender differences in physical self-confidence and emphasise the importance of measuring this at skill level as differences were task specific. This scale will facilitate future research examining the relationship between self-confidence, FMS proficiency and physical activity participation.