Health impacts of poor water quality on an endangered shorebird breeding programme in Aotearoa New Zealand.

CASE HISTORY: Two clusters of mortality among endangered tuturuatu/tchuriwat'/shore plover (Thinornis novaeseelandiae) have occurred at captive breeding facilities around New Zealand in recent years. In the first, four chicks died at Pukaha National Wildlife Centre (Mount Bruce, NZ) in February 2016, and in the second five adult birds at the Cape Sanctuary (Cape Kidnappers, NZ) died in 2022. CLINICAL FINDINGS: In 2016, four chicks were noted to become weak, have increased vocalisations and closed eyes prior to death. The remaining chicks were treated for 5 days with amoxycillin/clavulanate orally twice daily. Water containers and brooders were cleaned and disinfected with chlorhexidine. No further mortality was seen.In the 2022 cluster, three adult breeding birds died acutely and five others showed inappetence, weight loss and diarrhoea approximately 10 days after heavy rains flooded the local river. The five birds were treated with amoxycillin/clavulanate orally twice daily and oral fluids for 5 days. Two birds died and three survived. No breeding occurred in the aviaries in the following season. PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS: In 2016, the chicks showed pulmonary changes ranging from congestion and oedema to heterophilic inflammation consistent with septicaemia.In 2022, the adult birds showed proliferation of bacteria in the distal small intestine associated with mucosal ulceration and heterophilic infiltration. Acid-fast staining of the caecal contents in one bird showed organisms consistent with Cryptosporidium spp. LABORATORY FINDINGS: Aerobic bacterial cultures of the lung and liver of two affected chicks carried out in 2016 showed heavy growth of Plesiomonas shigelloides. The same organism was cultured from water trays and holding tanks containing water boatmen (Sigara arguta) on which the chicks were fed.In 2022, cultures from the livers of three dead birds each showed a mixed bacterial growth with differing dominant organisms (Aeromonas sobria, Hafnia alvei, Citrobacter freundii and an Enterococcus sp.). PCR and sequencing confirmed Cryptosporidium parvum in the caecum of one bird. Fresh faeces from 24 breeding birds from the captive breeding facilities were negative by PCR for Cryptosporidium spp.The captive breeding facilities obtain water for the aviaries and aquatic invertebrates to feed to the chicks from local freshwater sources. Water quality testing at the Cape Sanctuary revealed concentrations of faecal indicator bacteria in excess of safe drinking water guidelines, with peaks following heavy rainfall. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Fluctuations in water quality associated with mammalian faecal bacteria can adversely affect bird health and impact on captive rearing of endangered wildlife.

Gauging mixed climate extreme value distributions in tropical cyclone regions.

In tropical cyclone (TC) regions, tide gauge or numerical hindcast records are usually of insufficient length to have sampled sufficient cyclones to enable robust estimates of the climate of TC-induced extreme water level events. Synthetically-generated TC populations provide a means to define a broader set of plausible TC events to better define the probabilities associated with extreme water level events. The challenge is to unify the estimates of extremes from synthetically-generated TC populations with the observed records, which include mainly non-TC extremes resulting from tides and more frequently occurring atmospheric-depression weather and climate events. We find that extreme water level measurements in multiple tide gauge records in TC regions, some which span more than 100 years, exhibit a behaviour consistent with the combining of two populations, TC and non-TC. We develop an equation to model the combination of two populations of extremes in a single continuous mixed climate (MC) extreme value distribution (EVD). We then run statistical simulations to show that long term records including both historical and synthetic events can be better explained using MC than heavy-tailed generalised EVDs. This has implications for estimating extreme water levels when combining synthetic cyclone extreme sea levels with hindcast water levels to provide actionable information for coastal protection.

A High-End Estimate of Sea Level Rise for Practitioners.

Sea level rise (SLR) is a long-lasting consequence of climate change because global anthropogenic warming takes centuries to millennia to equilibrate for the deep ocean and ice sheets. SLR projections based on climate models support policy analysis, risk assessment and adaptation planning today, despite their large uncertainties. The central range of the SLR distribution is estimated by process-based models. However, risk-averse practitioners often require information about plausible future conditions that lie in the tails of the SLR distribution, which are poorly defined by existing models. Here, a community effort combining scientists and practitioners builds on a framework of discussing physical evidence to quantify high-end global SLR for practitioners. The approach is complementary to the IPCC AR6 report and provides further physically plausible high-end scenarios. High-end estimates for the different SLR components are developed for two climate scenarios at two timescales. For global warming of +2°C in 2100 (RCP2.6/SSP1-2.6) relative to pre-industrial values our high-end global SLR estimates are up to 0.9 m in 2100 and 2.5 m in 2300. Similarly, for a (RCP8.5/SSP5-8.5), we estimate up to 1.6 m in 2100 and up to 10.4 m in 2300. The large and growing differences between the scenarios beyond 2100 emphasize the long-term benefits of mitigation. However, even a modest 2°C warming may cause multi-meter SLR on centennial time scales with profound consequences for coastal areas. Earlier high-end assessments focused on instability mechanisms in Antarctica, while here we emphasize the importance of the timing of ice shelf collapse around Antarctica. This is highly uncertain due to low understanding of the driving processes. Hence both process understanding and emission scenario control high-end SLR.

Projected incremental changes to extreme wind-driven wave heights for the twenty-first century.

Global climate change will alter wind sea and swell waves, modifying the severity, frequency and impact of episodic coastal flooding and morphological change. Global-scale estimates of increases to coastal impacts have been typically attributed to sea level rise and not specifically to changes to waves on their own. This study provides a reduced complexity method for applying projected extreme wave changes to local scale impact studies. We use non-stationary extreme value analysis to distil an incremental change signal in extreme wave heights and associate this with a change in the frequency of events globally. Extreme wave heights are not projected to increase everywhere. We find that the largest increases will typically be experienced at higher latitudes, and that there is high ensemble model agreement on an increase (doubling of events) for the waters south of Australia, the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Guinea by the end of the twenty-first century.

Prevalence and characterisation of wounds in sheep attributed to attacks by kea (Nestor notabilis) on high country farms in New Zealand.

Aims: To characterise and classify wounds in sheep suspected to have been caused by attacks by kea (Nestor notabilis) (kea strike), and to report the prevalence of these wounds on five high country farms in the South Island of New Zealand.Methods: Data were collected from farms between 28 August 2012 and 20 September 2013. Sheep were examined opportunistically immediately after shearing for signs of wounds caused by kea. The age and sex of sheep were also recorded. Wounds were measured and characterised as recent, healing, or healed, and the estimated true prevalence was calculated for each farm.Results: Injuries consistent with kea strike wounds were identified in 70/13,978 (0.5%) sheep examined. The estimated true prevalence varied between farms, from 0 (95% CI = 0-0.16) to 1.25 (95% CI = 0.97-1.61)%. Of the 76 wounds identified, 61 (80%) were located in the lumbar region, and 74 (97%) consisted of full-thickness ulceration of the skin, one showed evidence of injury to muscle and one to bone. The median length of the 63 wounds measured was 6 (min 1, max 23.5) cm, and 10/63 (13%) were categorised as recently healed, 47/63 (62%) as healing, and 17/63 (22%) as recent wounds.Conclusions: The results of this study show that kea strike on sheep was occurring at a low prevalence on the high country farms surveyed. The wounds identified were survivable, but the welfare impact of kea strike on sheep should be considered in balance with the conservation status of kea. There was clear variation in the prevalence of wounds attributed to kea strike between the farms but we were not able to identify the risk factors contributing to these differences. Future studies of kea strike should examine variables such as altitude, local kea density and distribution, and differences in kea strike management and husbandry practices, and should include high country farms without a history of kea strike.

Technique and preliminary findings for in vivo quantification of brain motion during injurious head impacts.

Computational models of the human brain are widely used in the evaluation and development of helmets and other protective equipment. These models are often attempted to be validated using cadaver tissue displacements despite studies showing neural tissue degrades quickly after death. Addressing this limitation, this study aimed to develop a technique for quantifying living brain motion in vivo using a closed head impact animal model of traumatic brain injury (TBI) called CHIMERA. We implanted radiopaque markers within the brain of three adult ferrets and resealed the skull while the animals were anesthetized. We affixed additional markers to the skull to track skull kinematics. The CHIMERA device delivered controlled, repeatable head impacts to the head of the animals while the impacts were fluoroscopically stereo-visualized. We observed that 1.5 mm stainless steel fiducials (∼8 times the density of the brain) migrated from their implanted positions while neutral density targets remained in their implanted position post-impact. Brain motion relative to the skull was quantified in neutral density target tests and showed increasing relative motion at higher head impact severities. We observed the motion of the brain lagged behind that of the skull, similar to previous studies. This technique can be used to obtain a comprehensive dataset of in vivo brain motion to validate computational models reflecting the mechanical properties of the living brain. The technique would also allow the mechanical response of in vivo brain tissue to be compared to cadaveric preparations for investigating the fidelity of current human computational brain models.

Apparent lack of efficacy of toltrazuril against Eimeria species affecting brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) at a captive rearing facility.

AIM: To assess the efficacy of toltrazuril against the Eimeria spp. affecting brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). METHODS: Droppings were collected from three brown kiwi, aged <6 months old, at a captive rearing facility in the North Island of New Zealand, between 22 February and 20 April 2017, on 14 sampling dates. Only droppings (n=30) that were excreted between 03:00 and 07:00, as determined using video surveillance, were included for analysis, reflecting the peak time for shedding of coccidial oocysts for brown kiwi. Oocysts were quantified in each sample and Eimeria species identified on the basis of oocyst morphology. All samples were collected between 2 and 10 days after the birds had been treated with 25 mg/kg toltrazuril. RESULTS: Eimeria spp. oocysts were identified in 28/30 individual samples and on 14/14 sampling dates. Oocyst counts varied from 0 to 328,080 oocysts per gram (opg), and at least one oocyst count >10,000 opg was measured on 12/14 sampling dates. Three species of Eimeria were observed, with Eimeria apteryxii and E. kiwii most commonly encountered, whereas only one sample contained E. paraurii. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In the three birds monitored at this research site, there was a high abundance of E. apteryxii and E. kiwii oocysts in droppings despite recent administration of toltrazuril. These results suggest that the populations of Eimeria spp. affecting brown kiwi at this location appear to possess an ability to survive exposure to toltrazuril. Toltrazuril is widely used at captive rearing facilities to limit the effects of coccidiosis in juvenile kiwi. If a lack of efficacy is confirmed, it will be necessary to investigate alternative treatment regimens alongside broader environmental management strategies.

The circadian variation of oocyst shedding of Eimeria spp. affecting brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli).

Captive rearing of wild brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) is widely carried out to assist in the recovery of this declining species. As a consequence, high densities of immunologically naïve kiwi are commonly housed in semi-captive conditions, with the potential to result in substantial morbidity and mortality from coccidiosis caused by multiple species of Eimeria. Previous research has described circadian variation in oocyst shedding across multiple avian host species. The aim of this research was to describe any circadian variation in oocyst shedding in brown kiwi. Droppings were collected from brown kiwi (n = 4) at a single captive rearing facility using video surveillance to determine the time of excretion, and oocyst counts were undertaken. Results show that two of the Eimeria spp. affecting brown kiwi exhibit a peak in oocyst shedding between 03.00 and 07.00 with few or no oocysts shed between 08.00 and midnight. These results are not able to be explained by the current hypotheses theorising the evolutionary forces behind the development of this adaptive trait. Our findings increase the current understanding of the biology of the Eimeria spp. affecting brown kiwi and have important implications for the management of captive-reared kiwi, in particular for the accurate interpretation of faecal oocyst counts.

Dermatomycosis caused by Paranannizziopsis australasiensis in five tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) and a coastal bearded dragon (Pogona barbata) in a zoological collection in New Zealand.

CASE HISTORY: Health monitoring of tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) at Auckland Zoo between 2001 and 2009 showed that 58/93 tuatara had been affected by dermatitis of unknown origin. From 2011 onwards, cases of suspected fungal dermatitis underwent extensive diagnostic investigations. CLINCAL FINDINGS: Six cases of dermatomycosis were attributed to Paranannizziopsis australasiensis, five in tuatara and one in a coastal bearded dragon (Pogona barbata). Cases presented typically as raised, yellow to brown encrustations on the skin. Severe cases progressed to necrotising ulcerative dermatitis, and in the bearded dragon to fatal systemic mycosis. Following topical and systemic treatments, lesions resolved in all five tuatara. LABORATORY FINDINGS: Histopathological examination of skin biopsy samples revealed dermatitis with intralesional septate branching hyphae. Fungal culture yielded isolates morphologically resembling Chrysosporium species, and isolates were submitted for molecular confirmation and sequencing of DNA. DIAGNOSIS: All six cases were confirmed as dermatitis due to infection with P. australasiensis, on the basis of fungal culture and DNA sequencing of isolates. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: These are the first reported cases of dermatomycosis associated with P. australasiensis infection in tuatara, and the first cases in which systemic therapeutic agents have been used in the treatment of such disease. Tuatara at the Auckland Zoo are now routinely examined every 3 months and tissue samples from any lesions sent for histopathology and fungal culture. Further work to elucidate the epidemiology and significance of P. australasiensis infections in reptiles in New Zealand is important for both welfare and conservation purposes.

Network analysis of wildlife translocations in New Zealand.

AIMS: To identify network measures with relevance to disease spread in a network of movements derived from the Department of Conservation (DOC) translocation records from 1970 to mid-2014, and to identify conservation sites that should be prioritised for surveillance activities and improvements to data collection to make the best use of network analysis techniques in the future. METHODS: Data included the source and destination of translocated specimens, the species and the dates the translocations were expected to occur. The data were used to construct a directed, non-weighted network in which a translocation event represented a tie in the network. Network density, in-degree (movements entering a node of interest) and out-degree (movements leaving a node of interest) and reciprocity were calculated. RESULTS: The data analysed consisted of 692 unique translocations between 307 sites, with the majority (518; 73%) being for birds. The constructed network for bird, reptile and frog translocations comprised 260 nodes, with 34/260 (13%) having two-way movements and 47/260 (18%) non-reciprocal movements. The median degree score (sum of in- and out-degree) was two (min 0, max 36) with a mean of 3.5 in a right skewed distribution. Most sites acted as receivers or senders of consignments with only a few having both high in- and high out-degree, and thus had characteristics that made them sites of interest for surveillance activities. These included the National Wildlife Centre at Mount Bruce, Tiritiri Matangi Island and Te Kakahu (Chalky Island). CONCLUSIONS: The presence of linking sites that join larger clusters within the network creates the potential for rapid disease spread if a pathogen were to be introduced. The important sites that supply or receive specimens for translocations are already well recognised by those performing translocations in New Zealand, and this paper provides further information by quantifying their role within the network.

Ventral dermatitis in rowi (Apteryx rowi) due to cutaneous larval migrans.

The rowi is a critically endangered species of kiwi. Young birds on a crèche island showed loss of feathers from the ventral abdomen and a scurfy dermatitis of the abdominal skin and vent margin. Histology of skin biopsies identified cutaneous larval migrans, which was shown by molecular sequencing to be possibly from a species of Trichostrongylus as a cause of ventral dermatitis and occasional ulcerative vent dermatitis. The predisposing factors that led to this disease are suspected to be the novel exposure of the rowi to parasites from seabirds or marine mammals due to the island crèche and the limited management of roost boxes. This is the first instance of cutaneous larval migrans to be recorded in birds. Severe and fatal complications of the investigation resulted in the death of eight birds of aspergillosis and pulmonary complications associated with the use of bark as a substrate in hospital. Another bird died of renal failure during the period of hospitalisation despite oral and intravenous fluid therapy. The initiating cause of the renal failure was not determined. These complications have the potential to undermine the working relationship between wildlife veterinarians and conservation managers. This case highlights that intensive conservation management can result in increased opportunities for novel routes of cross-species pathogen transmission.

Investigation of mortalities associated with Salmonella spp. infection in wildlife on Tiritiri Matangi Island in the Hauraki Gulf of New Zealand.

CASE HISTORY: Salmonellosis was suspected as the cause of death in eight wild animals on Tiritiri Matangi Island, in the Hauraki Gulf of New Zealand, between November and September 2011, including three hihi (Notiomystis cincta), a tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus), a masked lapwing (Vanellus miles novaehollandiae), and a saddleback (Philesturnus carunculatus). An outbreak investigation to identify the source and distribution of infection was undertaken over the summer of 2011-2012. CLINICAL AND LABORATORY FINDINGS: Surveillance of five species of forest bird (n=165) in December 2011 returned a single positive result for Salmonella spp. Environmental sampling of 35 key water sources and hihi supplementary feeding stations conducted in December 2011 and March 2012 returned isolates of S. enterica subspecies houtenae and S. enterica serovar Saintpaul from a stream, a dam and a supplementary feeding station. The same serotypes were identified in tissue samples collected from post mortem specimens of the affected birds, and their similarity was confirmed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. DIAGNOSIS: Mortality in wildlife associated with infection with S. enterica subspecies houtenae and S. enterica serovar Saintpaul. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: This is the first detection of these Salmonella spp. from wild birds in New Zealand. Our study highlights how active surveillance in response to observed disease emergence (here mortalities) can provide important insight for risk assessment and management within populations of endangered species and inform risk assessment in translocation planning.

Endometrial Intracrinology--generation of an estrogen-dominated microenvironment in the secretory phase of women.

CONTEXT: The human endometrium is a complex multicellular tissue subject to cyclical fluctuations in ovarian-derived steroid hormones. Fertile cycles are characterized by differentiation (decidualization) of endometrial stromal cells (ESC). OBJECTIVE: To determine the impact of human stromal cell decidualization on biosynthesis and secretion of estrogens. DESIGN: Primary cell culture was used. Cells were decidualized in vitro. Some cultures were treated with an aromatase inhibitor. SETTING: A University Research Institute. PATIENTS: Primary ESC were derived from women with normal menstrual cycles (n = 12). None of the women were receiving hormonal therapy or suffering from endometriosis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Expression of mRNA and protein encoded by the aromatase (CYP19A1) and 3-ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (HSD3B1) genes was assessed. Aromatase activity was measured using a tritiated water assay; steroid metabolism was determined using thin layer chromatography. Estrone (E1) and estradiol (E2) in cell culture media were measured by ELISA. RESULTS: Decidualization induced a two-fold increase in aromatase mRNA. Aromatase protein was only detected in decidualized ESC. 3-ß-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase protein was present in ESC both before and after decidualization; concentrations appeared unchanged. The existence of functional aromatase in decidualized ESC was confirmed; E1 and E2 were secreted into culture media in decidualized ESC and concentrations were reduced when cells were incubated with an aromatase inhibitor. Decidualization resulted in reduced metabolism of E2 and an increase in the ratio of E2:E1. CONCLUSIONS: Decidualization is characterized by an increase in aromatase expression/activity favoring the generation of an E2-dominated estrogen microenvironment within the endometrial stroma.

Hazardous drinking and its association with homelessness among veterans in care.

BACKGROUND: While scholarship on alcohol use and homelessness has focused on the impact of alcohol abuse and dependence, little is known about the effects of lower levels of misuse such as hazardous use. Veterans receiving care in the Department of Veterans Affairs Health Care System (VA) constitute a population that is vulnerable to alcohol misuse and homelessness. This research examines the effects of hazardous drinking on homelessness in the Veterans Aging Cohort Study, a sample of 2898 older veterans (mean age=50.2), receiving care in 8 VAs across the country. METHODS: Logistic regression models examined the associations between (1) hazardous drinking at baseline and homelessness at 1-year follow-up, (2) transitions into and out of hazardous drinking from baseline to follow-up and homelessness at follow-up, and (3) transitioning to hazardous drinking and transitioning to homelessness from baseline to follow-up during that same time-period. RESULTS: After controlling for other correlates including alcohol dependence, hazardous drinking at baseline increased the risk of homelessness at follow-up (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]=1.39, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.02, 1.88). Transitioning to hazardous drinking more than doubled the risk of homelessness at follow-up (AOR=2.42, 95% CI=1.41, 4.15), while more than doubling the risk of transitioning from being housed at baseline to being homeless at follow-up (AOR=2.49, 95% CI=1.30, 4.79). CONCLUSIONS: Early intervention that seeks to prevent transitioning into hazardous drinking could increase housing stability among veterans. Brief interventions which have been shown to be effective at lower levels of alcohol use should be implemented with veterans in VA care.

The impact of children's perception of an activity as play rather than not play on emotional well-being.

BACKGROUND: As an important aspect of health and development, a number of policy and practice initiatives across education, health and social care are aimed at increasing children's emotional well-being. Links have been made between young children's emotional well-being and play although empirical evidence is limited. This paper demonstrates that when children perceive an activity as play, they show more signs of emotional well-being than when they perceive the same activity as not play. METHODS: One hundred and twenty-nine children aged between 3 and 5 years participated in the study. The cues children use to differentiate play and not play were used to create an activity session that was 'like play' and an activity session that was 'not like play'. The activity itself remained constant. Children were allocated to either of the activity session types alternately and emotional well-being was measured using the Leuvens Involvement Scale. RESULTS: There was a significant difference in the level of emotional well-being displayed by children in the two activity session types. Children who undertook the 'like play' activity scored significantly higher than children who undertook the same activity but 'not like play'. Detailed observational analysis also showed increased behavioural indicators relating to emotional well-being among children participating in the 'like play' rather than 'not like play' activity session. CONCLUSION: Children demonstrate increased emotional well-being when they perceive an activity as play rather than not play. Findings support the proposition that play can be seen as an observable behaviour but also as a mental state. As well as providing important evidence as to the value of play for enhancing children's emotional well-being, findings are discussed in relation to professional practice in children's services. The paper highlights the training needs of practitioners to enable them to understand children's views about play and use this information to create playful situations which maximize the developmental potential of play.

A cluster of avian malaria cases in a kiwi management programme.

AIM: To describe a temporal cluster of avian malaria (Plasmodium spp.) at an Operation Nest Egg™ (ONE) site in Rotorua which caused mortality in a juvenile kiwi and had high population prevalence in brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). METHODS: A 70-day-old wild-born captive brown kiwi was submitted for post-mortem examination to Massey University Wildlife Health Centre. Post-mortem examination and histopathology were used to determine the cause of death. Plasmodium specific PCR analysis was subsequently conducted on tissue samples and 108 individual blood samples from living kiwi from five ONE breeding sites and two rowi kiwi crèches. Positive PCR products were sequenced to identify the Plasmodium spp. isolated. Where possible, blood smear microscopic examination was used to determine the level of parasitaemia in the infected kiwi. RESULTS: Plasmodium spp. was detected in the kiwi which died and it showed histopathological evidence of disseminated protozoal infection. A high prevalence of Plasmodium was found in blood samples from kiwi concurrently residing at ONE Rotorua by blood smear microscopy (22/32, 68%) and PCR (25/32, 78%). All kiwi with positive blood smears had only a low level of peripheral parasitaemia at the time of sampling. However, 0/17 additional kiwi sampled at Rotorua 3 weeks after the juvenile's death, 0/23 Rotorua juveniles sampled 1 year later and 0/59 kiwi from the five other locations were positive for Plasmodium by these methods. Sequencing analysis revealed a cosmopolitan Plasmodium (Huffia) elongatum lineage in all positive birds. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first description of an avian malaria (Plasmodium spp.) infection associated with mortality and a high population prevalence in brown kiwi at a ONE site in the 20 years of the programme. The study suggests that this level of infection in a population of kiwi was unusual and provides evidence in support of continued vigilance of disease risks associated with this and other conservation management programmes involving wildlife translocation.

Regulation of LKB1 expression by sex hormones in adipocytes.

OBJECTIVE: In the adipose tissue, activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) by phosphorylation favours local fatty acid oxidation and inhibition of lipogenesis. We have previously shown that the potent androgen dihydrotestosterone (DHT) can inhibit phosphorylation of AMPK in adipose tissue and 3T3-L1 adipocytes in a dose-dependent manner. This negative effect of DHT was reversed by oestrogen treatment. The purpose of this current study was to determine the underlying mechanisms whereby androgens and oestrogens can regulate AMPK phosphorylation in adipocytes, and whether this mechanism is receptor dependent. RESULTS: Phosphorylation of AMPK was assessed by western blot in cells treated for 24 h with testosterone or DHT (1-1000 nM). Testosterone and DHT significantly inhibited basal phosphorylation of AMPK. Addition of the androgen receptor antagonist Flutamide (1 µM) to the media reversed the negative effect of testosterone and DHT by returning AMPK phosphorylation levels to those of basal. To further dissect the mechanism underlying AMPK inhibition by testosterone or DHT, we examined the mRNA expression of the upstream activator of AMPK, namely LKB1. Testosterone and DHT treatment of murine 3T3-L1 or human SGBS adipocytes for 24 h significantly decreased the mRNA expression of LKB1. In contrast, 17ß-estradiol treatment increased LKB1 mRNA, an effect mediated by oestrogen receptor alpha. CONCLUSION: We conclude that regulation of AMPK phosphorylation by androgens and oestrogens is receptor-dependent, and demonstrate for the first time that LKB1 is regulated by sex hormones in adipocytes.

Estrogen and adiposity--utilizing models of aromatase deficiency to explore the relationship.

Estrogen has an important role to play in energy homeostasis in both men and mice. Lack of estrogen results in the development of a metabolic syndrome in humans and rodents, including excess adiposity, hepatic steatosis (in male but not female aromatase knockout (ArKO) mice) and insulin resistance. Estrogen replacement results in a prompt reversal of the energy imbalance symptoms associated with estrogen deficiency. A corollary to the perturbed energy balance observed in the ArKO mouse is the death by apoptosis of dopaminergic neurons in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus of male ArKO mice, an area of the brain pivotal to the regulation of energy uptake, storage, and mobilisation. An extension of our work exploring the relationship between estrogen and adiposity has been to examine the role played by androgens in energy balance. We have demonstrated that an increased androgen to estrogen ratio can promote visceral fat accumulation in the rodent by inhibiting AMPK activation and stimulating lipogenesis. Therefore, understanding the regulation of energy homeostasis is becoming an increasingly fascinating challenge, as the number of contributors, their communications, and the complexity of their interactions, involved in the preservation of this equilibrium continues to increase. Models of aromatase deficiency, both naturally occurring and engineered, will continue to provide valuable insights into energy homeostasis.

Erysipelas in the critically endangered kakapo (Strigops habroptilus).

This paper describes the effect of a disease outbreak on the success of a translocation for conservation management in a critically endangered species. Three juvenile kakapo from a group of 19 translocated birds died within 72 h of transport between New Zealand offshore islands. Clinical findings, gross necropsy changes, cytology, histopathology and bacterial culture confirmed systemic disease caused by Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae. On the island from which the kakapo were sourced, positive cultures of E. rhusiopathiae were obtained from the medulla of the ulna from 10 out of 15 seabird carcasses examined, suggesting that this could be the source of infection for the kakapo. Immediately after the diagnosis, all of the translocated birds were re-captured and treated with antibiotics. A vaccination programme has commenced using a commercial killed bacterin developed for turkeys. The disease outbreak has had costly implications for the population and conservation management of the species. This is the first report of erysipelas in wild parrots, and the first report of the management of erysipelas in a critically endangered wild population of birds.

Differences in patient and clinic characteristics at CARE Act funded versus non-CARE Act funded HIV clinics.

The Ryan White CARE Act supports comprehensive care to persons with HIV infection. With an annual budget of over $1 billion, it is the largest federally funded programme for HIV care in the USA. We analysed data from the HIV Costs and Services Utilization Study, a nationally representative sample of HIV patients. Patient data were collected in 1996-97 and clinic data were collected in 1998-99. We examined whether CARE Act funded clinics differed from other HIV clinics in (1) the characteristics of their patients, and (2) their organization, staffing, and services. We found that patients at CARE Act clinics were younger, less educated, poorer, and more likely to be female, non-white, unemployed, uninsured, and have heterosexual contact as an HIV risk factor, compared to patients at other HIV clinics. CARE Act clinics tended to specialize in HIV care, had more infectious disease specialists, had fewer total patients, and provided more support services (e.g. mental health, nutrition, case management, child care). These results are consistent with findings of other studies that were limited by non-probability samples or restricted geographical areas.