Objectively Measured Sedentary Levels and Bouts by Day Type in Australian Young Children.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to understand whether a higher number of sedentary bouts (SED bouts) and higher levels of sedentary time (SED time) occur according to different day types (childcare days, nonchildcare weekdays, and weekends) in Australian toddlers (1-2.99 y) and preschoolers (3-5.99 y). METHODS: The SED time and bouts were assessed using ActiGraph GT3X+ accelerometers. The sample was composed of 264 toddlers and 343 preschoolers. The SED bouts and time differences were calculated using linear mixed models. RESULTS: The toddlers' percentage of SED time was higher on nonchildcare days compared with childcare days (mean difference [MD] = 2.3; 95% confidence interval, 0.7 to 3.9). The toddlers had a higher number of 1- to 4-minute SED bouts on nonchildcare days compared with childcare days. The preschoolers presented higher percentages of SED time during nonchildcare days (MD = 3.1; 95% confidence interval, 1.6 to 4.5) and weekends (MD = 1.9; 95% confidence interval, 0.4 to 3.4) compared with childcare days. The preschoolers presented a higher number of SED bouts (1-4, 5-9, 10-19, and 20-30 min) during nonchildcare days and weekends compared with childcare days. No SED times or bout differences were found between nonchildcare days and weekends, neither SED bouts >30 minutes on toddlers nor on preschoolers. CONCLUSION: The SED time and bouts seem to be lower during childcare periods, which means that interventions to reduce sedentary time should consider targeting nonchildcare days and weekends.

Cross-Sectional Associations of Application Use and Media Program Viewing with Cognitive and Psychosocial Development in Preschoolers.

Executive functions and psychosocial health during childhood are positively associated with health and developmental outcomes into adulthood. Electronic media use has been reported to adversely affect health and development in children; however, what remains unclear is whether contemporary media behaviors, such as electronic application (app) use, exerts similar effects on health and development. We investigated the associations of electronic media use (program viewing and app use) with cognitive and psychosocial development in preschoolers. Parents of preschool children (n = 247, 4.2 ± 0.6 years) reported the time their child spent using electronic media. Direct assessment of the children's executive functions (working memory, inhibition, and shifting) and educator-reported psychosocial difficulties were also collected. Associations were examined using linear regression adjustments for covariates and preschool clustering. Small, but significant, negative associations were observed for total electronic media use (b = -0.001; 95% CI: -0.003, -0.000; p = 0.026) and program viewing (b = -0.002; 95% CI: -0.003, -0.000; p = 0.033) with children's visual-spatial working memory. However, high-dose app users demonstrated higher phonological working memory scores compared to non-users (MD = 0.31; 95% CI: 0.04, 0.58; p = 0.025). Similarly, compared to non-users, low-dose app users displayed statistically significantly fewer total difficulties (MD = -1.67; 95% CI: -3.31, -0.02; p = 0.047). No associations were evident for high-dose app users and the remaining outcomes. The results may suggest that attempts to reduce program viewing while promoting moderate levels of app use may exert positive influences on children's executive functions and psychosocial development.

Longitudinal associations of physical activity and modified organized sport participation with executive function and psychosocial health in preschoolers.

To examine the longitudinal associations of objectively measured physical activity and modified organized sport participation with executive functions and psychological health in preschoolers. One hundred and eighty-five preschool children, mean age 4.2 ± 7.68; (years:months), 34% girls were followed for one year. Physical activity was measured using accelerometery, examining light, moderate, vigorous, moderate-to-vigorous, and total physical activity. Parents reported children's participation in modified organized sport. Direct assessment of children's executive functions (working memory, inhibition and shifting) and educator-reported psychosocial difficulties were also collected. Associations were examined using linear regression adjusting for covariates, baseline developmental outcomes and preschool clustering. Vigorous physical activity at baseline was positively associated with children's shifting performance (b = 0.245; 95% CI: 0.006, 0.485, p =.045) at follow-up, while the association for moderate-to-vigorous physical activity approached significance (b = 0.119; 95% CI: -0.001, 0.239, p =.051). Children not participating in modified organized sport at baseline demonstrated better inhibition scores 12-months later compared to sports participants (Mdiff 0.06; CI: 0.00, 0.13, p =.046). Increasing time spent in higher intensity physical activity among preschool children may be a viable target for supporting their later cognitive development, although there was no clear benefit of early participation in modified organized sport.

Compliance with the 24-Hour movement guidelines for the early years: Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations with executive function and psychosocial health in preschool children.

OBJECTIVE: To examine whether meeting the Australian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines was associated with cognitive and psychosocial health in preschoolers. DESIGN: Prospective observational study. METHODS: Cross-sectional (n=247) and 12-month longitudinal (n=185) data from the PATH-ABC study were examined. Physical activity was assessed by accelerometry. Parents reported children's screen time and sleep. Children were categorised at baseline as meeting: i) none/one guideline, ii) two guidelines, or iii) 24-Hour Movement Guidelines. Associations with executive functions and psychosocial health were examined using linear regression, adjusting for covariates and preschool clustering. Longitudinal associations were additionally adjusted for baseline levels of development. RESULTS: High proportions of children met the physical activity (94.3%) and sleep (89.9%) guidelines, 17.8% and 17.4% met screen time and 24-Hour Movement Guidelines, respectively. Cross-sectionally, children meeting both sleep and physical activity guidelines displayed better phonological working memory (p=0.026) and shifting (p= 0.034) scores compared to children who did not. Meeting two (p=0.037) and three (p=0.017) guidelines were associated with better phonological working memory and shifting scores, respectively (vs. meeting 0/1 guideline). Longitudinally, children meeting the physical activity guideline at baseline displayed better shifting performance 12-months later compared to those who did not (p<0.002). No associations with remaining cognitive outcomes, and no associations with psychosocial outcomes were evident. CONCLUSIONS: Null associations suggest that meeting the recommendations may not be adequate for broad cognitive and psychosocial health outcomes in preschoolers. However, supporting preschool children to meet the physical activity and sleep guidelines, may be beneficial for aspects of cognitive health.

Longitudinal Associations of Electronic Application Use and Media Program Viewing with Cognitive and Psychosocial Development in Preschoolers.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate associations of traditional (program viewing) and contemporary (electronic applications, or apps) electronic media use with preschoolers' executive function and psychosocial development 12 months later. METHODS: We conducted an analysis of longitudinal data from 185 children (mean age, 4.2 ± 0.6 years). Parents reported children's weekly electronic media use: 1) viewing programs on television or other devices and 2) app and game play using tablets, computers, consoles, or other devices. Direct assessments of children's executive functions (working memory, inhibition, and shifting) and educator-reported psychosocial difficulties were also collected. Linear regression models assessed associations between baseline predictors and developmental outcomes 12 months later, adjusting for covariates, preschool clustering, and baseline levels of predictors. RESULTS: Higher levels of program viewing at baseline were significantly associated with increases in externalizing behaviors (ß = 0.008; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.002-0.014; P = .010) and total difficulties (ß = 0.013; 95% CI, 0.005-0.022; P = .005) at follow-up. High-dose app users (≥30 min/d) had a significantly lower inhibition score (mean difference = -0.04; 95% CI: -0.09 to -0.00; P = .044) at follow-up compared to low-dose app users (1 to 29 min/d). CONCLUSIONS: Limiting electronic app use to <30 min/d and limiting media program viewing may be positively associated with preschool children's cognitive and psychosocial development.

Early Childhood Media Exposure and Self-Regulation: Bidirectional Longitudinal Associations.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate: 1) prospective associations between media exposure (television viewing, computers, and electronic games) at 2 years and self-regulation at 4 and 6 years, and 2) bidirectional associations between media exposure and self-regulation at 4 and 6 years. We hypothesized that media exposure and self-regulation would show a negative prospective association and subsequent bidirectional inverse associations. METHODS: Data from the nationally-representative Longitudinal Study of Australian Children when children were aged 2 years (n = 2786) and 4/6 years (n = 3527) were used. Primary caregivers reported children's weekly electronic media exposure. A composite measure of self-regulation was computed from caregiver-, teacher-, and observer-report data. Associations were examined using linear regression and cross-lagged panel models, accounting for covariates. RESULTS: Lower television viewing and total media exposure at 2 years were associated with higher self-regulation at 4 years (both ß = -0.02; 95% confidence interval [CI], -0.03 to -0.01). Lower self-regulation at 4 years was also significantly associated with higher television viewing (ß = -0.15; 95% CI, -0.21 to -0.08), electronic game use (ß = -0.05; 95% CI, -0.09 to -0.01), and total media exposure (ß = -0.19; 95% CI, -0.29 to -0.09) at 6 years. However, media exposure at 4 years was not associated with self-regulation at 6 years. CONCLUSIONS: Although media exposure duration at 2 years was associated with later self-regulation, and self-regulation at 4 years was associated with later media exposure, associations were of small magnitude. More research is needed to examine content quality, social context, and mobile media use and child self-regulation.

Adherence to 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for the Early Years and associations with social-cognitive development among Australian preschool children.

BACKGROUND: The new Australian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for the Early Years recommend that, for preschoolers, a healthy 24-h includes: i) ≥180 min of physical activity, including ≥60 min of energetic play, ii) ≤1 h of sedentary screen time, and iii) 10-13 h of good quality sleep. Using an Australian sample, this study reports the proportion of preschool children meeting these guidelines and investigates associations with social-cognitive development. METHODS: Data from 248 preschool children (mean age = 4.2 ± 0.6 years, 57% boys) participating in the PATH-ABC study were analyzed. Children completed direct assessments of physical activity (accelerometry) and social cognition (the Test of Emotional Comprehension (TEC) and Theory of Mind (ToM)). Parents reported on children's screen time and sleep. Children were categorised as meeting/not meeting: i) individual guidelines, ii) combinations of two guidelines, or iii) all three guidelines. Associations were examined using linear regression adjusting for child age, sex, vocabulary, area level socio-economic status and childcare level clustering. RESULTS: High proportions of children met the physical activity (93.1%) and sleep (88.7%) guidelines, whereas fewer met the screen time guideline (17.3%). Overall, 14.9% of children met all three guidelines. Children meeting the sleep guideline performed better on TEC than those who did not (mean difference [MD] = 1.41; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.36, 2.47). Children meeting the sleep and physical activity or sleep and screen time guidelines also performed better on TEC (MD = 1.36; 95% CI = 0.31, 2.41) and ToM (MD = 0.25; 95% CI = -0.002, 0.50; p = 0.05), respectively, than those who did not. Meeting all three guidelines was associated with better ToM performance (MD = 0.28; 95% CI = -0.002, 0.48, p = 0.05), while meeting a larger number of guidelines was associated with better TEC (3 or 2 vs. 1/none, p < 0.02) and ToM performance (3 vs. 2, p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Strategies to promote adherence to the 24-Hour Movement Behaviour Guidelines for the Early Years among preschool children are warranted. Supporting preschool children to meet all guidelines or more guidelines, particularly the sleep and screen time guidelines, may be beneficial for their social-cognitive development.

The Preschool Activity, Technology, Health, Adiposity, Behaviour and Cognition (PATH-ABC) cohort study: rationale and design.

BACKGROUND: Prevalence estimates internationally suggest that many preschool-aged children (3-5 years) are insufficiently physically active and engage in high levels of screen-based entertainment. Early childhood is the developmental period for which we know the least about the effects of physical activity on development and health. Likewise, rapid technological advancements in mobile electronic media have made screen-based forms of entertainment for young children ubiquitous, and research demonstrating the impacts on cognition, psychosocial well-being, and health has lagged behind the rate of adoption of these technologies. The purpose of the Preschool Activity, Technology, Health, Adiposity, Behaviour and Cognition (PATH-ABC) study is to investigate if physical activity and screen-based entertainment are independently associated with cognitive and psychosocial development, and health outcomes in young children, and if so, how much and which types of these behaviours might be most influential. METHODS: The PATH-ABC study is a prospective cohort, aiming to recruit 430 3-5 year-old children. Children are recruited through and complete initial assessments at their Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) centre, and then 12-months later at their centre or school. Direct assessments are made of children's habitual physical activity using accelerometry, cognitive (executive function) and language development (expressive vocabulary), psychosocial development (emotional understanding, Theory of Mind, empathy, and heart rate variability), adiposity (body mass index and waist circumference), and cardiovascular health (blood pressure and retinal micro- vasculature). Educators report on children's psychological strengths and difficulties and self-regulation. Parents report on children's habitual use of electronic media and other child, parent and household characteristics. DISCUSSION: The PATH-ABC study aims to provide evidence to enhance understanding of how much and which types of physical activity and screen-based media influence development and health in preschool-aged children. This information would benefit parents, educators, health professionals and governments seeking to develop strategies and policies to give young children the best start in life by promoting healthy levels of physical activity and electronic media use.

Cognitive Benefits of Social Dancing and Walking in Old Age: The Dancing Mind Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: A physically active lifestyle has the potential to prevent cognitive decline and dementia, yet the optimal type of physical activity/exercise remains unclear. Dance is of special interest as it complex sensorimotor rhythmic activity with additional cognitive, social, and affective dimensions. OBJECTIVES: To determine whether dance benefits executive function more than walking, an activity that is simple and functional. METHODS: Two-arm randomized controlled trial among community-dwelling older adults. The intervention group received 1 h of ballroom dancing twice weekly over 8 months (~69 sessions) in local community dance studios. The control group received a combination of a home walking program with a pedometer and optional biweekly group-based walking in local community park to facilitate socialization. MAIN OUTCOMES: Executive function tests: processing speed and task shift by the Trail Making Tests, response inhibition by the Stroop Color-Word Test, working memory by the Digit Span Backwards test, immediate and delayed verbal recall by the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, and visuospatial recall by the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test (BVST). RESULTS: One hundred and fifteen adults (mean 69.5 years, SD 6.4) completed baseline and delayed baseline (3 weeks apart) before being randomized to either dance (n = 60) or walking (n = 55). Of those randomized, 79 (68%) completed the follow-up measurements (32 weeks from baseline). In the dance group only, "non-completers" had significantly lower baseline scores on all executive function tests than those who completed the full program. Intention-to-treat analyses showed no group effect. In a random effects model including participants who completed all measurements, adjusted for baseline score and covariates (age, education, estimated verbal intelligence, and community), a between-group effect in favor of dance was noted only for BVST total learning (Cohen's D Effect size 0.29, p = 0.07) and delayed recall (Cohen's D Effect size = 0.34, p = 0.06). CONCLUSION: The superior potential of dance over walking on executive functions of cognitively healthy and active older adults was not supported. Dance improved one of the cognitive domains (spatial memory) important for learning dance. Controlled trials targeting inactive older adults and of a higher dose may produce stronger effects, particularly for novice dancers. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Register (ACTRN12613000782730).

Associations between physical activity parenting practices and adolescent girls' self-perceptions and physical activity intentions.

BACKGROUND: The current study investigated cross-sectional associations between maternal and paternal logistic and modeling physical activity support and the self-efficacy, self-esteem, and physical activity intentions of 11- to 12-year-old girls. METHODS: 210 girls reported perceptions of maternal and paternal logistic and modeling support and their self-efficacy, self-esteem and intention to be physically active. Data were analyzed using multivariable regression models. RESULTS: Maternal logistic support was positively associated with participants' self-esteem, physical activity self-efficacy, and intention to be active. Maternal modeling was positively associated with self-efficacy. Paternal modeling was positively associated with self-esteem and self-efficacy but there was no evidence that paternal logistic support was associated with the psychosocial variables. CONCLUSIONS: Activity-related parenting practices were associated with psychosocial correlates of physical activity among adolescent girls. Logistic support from mothers, rather than modeling support or paternal support may be a particularly important target when designing interventions aimed at preventing the age-related decline in physical activity among girls.

Bristol girls dance project feasibility trial: outcome and process evaluation results.

BACKGROUND: Many adolescent girls do not engage in sufficient physical activity (PA). This study examined the feasibility of conducting a cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate an after-school dance program to increase PA among 11-12 year old girls in Bristol, UK. METHODS: Three-arm, cluster RCT. Three secondary schools were assigned to intervention arm. Intervention participants received a 9-week dance program with 2, 90-minute dance classes per week. Participants at 2 control schools received incentives for data collection. Participants at 2 additional control schools received incentives and a delayed dance workshop. Accelerometer data were collected at baseline (time 0), during the last week of the dance program (time 1) and 20 weeks after the start of the study (time 2). Weekly attendance, enjoyment and perceived exertion were assessed in intervention participants. Post-study qualitative work was conducted with intervention participants and personnel. RESULTS: 40.1% of girls provided consent to be in the study. The mean number of girls attending at least one dance session per week ranged from 15.4 to 25.9. There was greater number of participants for whom accelerometer data were collected in control arms. The mean attendance was 13.3 sessions (maximum=18). Perceived exertion ratings indicated that the girls did not find the sessions challenging. The dance teachers reported that the program content would benefit from revisions including less creative task time, a broader range of dance genres and improved behavioral management policies. At time 2, the 95% confidence intervals suggest between 5 and 12 minutes more weekday MVPA in the intervention group compared with the control incentives only group, and between 6 minutes fewer and 1 minute more compared with the control incentives plus workshop group. Between 14 and 24 schools would be required to detect a difference of 10 minutes in mean weekday MVPA between intervention and control groups. CONCLUSIONS: It is possible to recruit 11-12 year old girls to participate in an after-school dance study. An after-school dance intervention has potential to positively affect the PA levels of 11-12 year old girls but an adequately powered RCT is required to test this intervention approach.

Adolescent girls' and parents' views on recruiting and retaining girls into an after-school dance intervention: implications for extra-curricular physical activity provision.

BACKGROUND: Many adolescents are not sufficiently active and girls are less active than boys. Physical activity interventions delivered during curriculum time have reported weak effects. More sustained changes in physical activity may be obtained by facilitating participation in enjoyable activities. Dance is the favourite activity of UK girls but there is a shortage of dance provision. Dance sessions delivered after the school day could prove to be an effective means of engaging adolescent girls in physical activity. There is a lack of information about the factors that would affect girls' recruitment and retention in an after-school dance programme. METHODS: Focus groups were conducted with 65, Year 7 (11-12 year old) girls from 4 secondary schools in Bristol. In-depth phone interviews were also conducted with 16 (4 per school) of the girls' parents. Interviews and focus groups examined issues that would affect recruitment into the intervention, strategies that could be used to attract girls who have little or no previous experience in dance, any factors that would increase their interest in participating in an after-school dance programme and any factors that would affect retention in the programme. All interviews and focus groups were digitally recorded and thematically analysed. RESULTS: Girls reported that a taster session in which they had an opportunity to sample the intervention content and "word of mouth" campaigns by peers, who did not need to be their friends, would encourage them to participate in an after-school dance programme. Sessions that maximised enjoyment and facilitated socialisation opportunities would enhance retention. Parents reported that encouraging groups of friends to join the programme, and stressing the enjoyment of the session would increase participation. CONCLUSIONS: Recruitment and retention campaigns that focus on enjoyment, socialisation, mastery, goal setting and relating to other girls may be effective strategies for recruiting and retaining girls in an after-school dance programme. These factors are consistent with well-established theories of individual behaviour change such as self-determination theory and social cognitive theory. Recruitment and retention campaigns that are targeted to address theoretically derived mediators of behaviour may be more effective than traditional approaches.

No country for old men? The role of a 'Gentlemen's Club' in promoting social engagement and psychological well-being in residential care.

OBJECTIVE: Social isolation is a common problem in older people who move into care that has negative consequences for well-being. This is of particular concern for men, who are marginalised in long-term care settings as a result of their reduced numbers and greater difficulty in accessing effective social support, relative to women. However, researchers in the social identity tradition argue that developing social group memberships can counteract the effects of isolation. We test this account in this study by examining whether increased socialisation with others of the same gender enhances social identification, well-being (e.g. life satisfaction, mood), and cognitive ability. METHOD: Care home residents were invited to join gender-based groups (i.e. Ladies and Gentlemen's Clubs). Nine groups were examined (five male groups, four female groups) comprising 26 participants (12 male, 14 female), who took part in fortnightly social activities. Social identification, personal identity strength, cognitive ability and well-being were measured at the commencement of the intervention and 12 weeks later. RESULTS: A clear gender effect was found. For women, there was evidence of maintained well-being and identification over time. For men, there was a significant reduction in depression and anxiety, and an increased sense of social identification with others. CONCLUSION: While decreasing well-being tends to be the norm in long-term residential care, building new social group memberships in the form of gender clubs can counteract this decline, particularly among men.