Pharmacovigilance of nephrotoxic drugs in neonates: the Pottel method for acute kidney injury detection in ELBW neonates.

BACKGROUND: Extremely low birth weight (ELBW) neonates (birth weight ≤ 1000 g) are at high risk to develop drug-induced acute kidney injury (AKI). However, we lack a pragmatic detection tool to capture their time-dependent (patho)physiologic serum creatinine (Scr) patterns. Pottel et al. suggested rescaling Scr by dividing Scr with the mean Scr value of the age- and sex-specific reference population. We explored if this Pottel method can detect drug-related nephrotoxicity in ELBW neonates. METHODS: A previously reported dataset on Scr changes in ELBW neonates exposed to ibuprofen, amikacin, or vancomycin was updated to calculate Pottel scores for every available Scr value in the first 28 postnatal days. We hereby used previously published postnatal age-specific 50th centile values in an ELBW population. Linear mixed models were applied, analyzing Pottel scores as response variable and continuous time (day), drug exposure, and interaction thereof in the explanatory model. RESULTS: Serum creatinine (n = 3231) observations in 201 ELBW neonates were collected. A statistically significant rise of Pottel scores was observed with ibuprofen starting from postnatal day 4. In addition, a cumulative effect of treatment with mean Pottel scores on day 0 of 1.020 and on day 3 during treatment of 1.106 (95% CI 1.068-1.145, p < 0.001) was observed, corrected for effect of antibiotics. Antibiotic administrations showed a small but statistically significant difference up to postnatal day 5. CONCLUSIONS: As rescaled Scr biomarker, the Pottel method showed a clear association with ibuprofen-exposed ELBW neonates, suggesting its applicability as a pragmatic bedside alternative tool to assess nephrotoxicity.

Clinical practice recommendations for kidney involvement in tuberous sclerosis complex: a consensus statement by the ERKNet Working Group for Autosomal Dominant Structural Kidney Disorders and the ERA Genes & Kidney Working Group.

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by the presence of proliferative lesions throughout the body. Management of TSC is challenging because patients have a multifaceted systemic illness with prominent neurological and developmental impact as well as potentially severe kidney, heart and lung phenotypes; however, every organ system can be involved. Adequate care for patients with TSC requires a coordinated effort involving a multidisciplinary team of clinicians and support staff. This clinical practice recommendation was developed by nephrologists, urologists, paediatric radiologists, interventional radiologists, geneticists, pathologists, and patient and family group representatives, with a focus on TSC-associated kidney manifestations. Careful monitoring of kidney function and assessment of kidney structural lesions by imaging enable early interventions that can preserve kidney function through targeted approaches. Here, we summarize the current evidence and present recommendations for the multidisciplinary management of kidney involvement in TSC.

Heterozygous mutations in the C-terminal domain of COPA underlie a complex autoinflammatory syndrome.

Mutations in the N-terminal WD40 domain of coatomer protein complex subunit α (COPA) cause a type I interferonopathy, typically characterized by alveolar hemorrhage, arthritis, and nephritis. We described 3 heterozygous mutations in the C-terminal domain (CTD) of COPA (p.C1013S, p.R1058C, and p.R1142X) in 6 children from 3 unrelated families with a similar syndrome of autoinflammation and autoimmunity. We showed that these CTD COPA mutations disrupt the integrity and the function of coat protein complex I (COPI). In COPAR1142X and COPAR1058C fibroblasts, we demonstrated that COPI dysfunction causes both an anterograde ER-to-Golgi and a retrograde Golgi-to-ER trafficking defect. The disturbed intracellular trafficking resulted in a cGAS/STING-dependent upregulation of the type I IFN signaling in patients and patient-derived cell lines, albeit through a distinct molecular mechanism in comparison with mutations in the WD40 domain of COPA. We showed that CTD COPA mutations induce an activation of ER stress and NF-κB signaling in patient-derived primary cell lines. These results demonstrate the importance of the integrity of the CTD of COPA for COPI function and homeostatic intracellular trafficking, essential to ER homeostasis. CTD COPA mutations result in disease by increased ER stress, disturbed intracellular transport, and increased proinflammatory signaling.

Estimating risk of rapid disease progression in pediatric patients with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease: a randomized trial of tolvaptan.

BACKGROUND: Tolvaptan preserves kidney function in adults with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) at elevated risk of rapid progression. A trial (NCT02964273) evaluated tolvaptan safety and pharmacodynamics in children (5-17 years). However, progression risk was not part of study eligibility criteria due to lack of validated criteria for risk assessment in children. As risk estimation is important to guide clinical management, baseline characteristics of the study participants were retrospectively evaluated to determine whether risk of rapid disease progression in pediatric ADPKD can be assessed and to identify parameters relevant for risk estimation. METHODS: Four academic pediatric nephrologists reviewed baseline data and rated participant risk from 1 (lowest) to 5 (highest) based on clinical judgement and the literature. Three primary reviewers independently scored all cases, with each case reviewed by two primary reviewers. For cases with discordant ratings (≥ 2-point difference), the fourth reviewer provided a secondary rating blinded to the primary evaluations. Study participants with discordant ratings and/or for whom data were lacking were later discussed to clarify parameters relevant to risk estimation. RESULTS: Of 90 evaluable subjects, primary reviews of 69 (77%) were concordant. The proportion considered at risk of rapid progression (final mean rating ≥ 3.5) by age group was: 15-17 years, 27/34 (79%); 12- < 15, 9/32 (28%); 4- < 12, 8/24 (33%). The panelists agreed on characteristics important for risk determination: age, kidney imaging, kidney function, blood pressure, urine protein, and genetics. CONCLUSIONS: High ratings concordance and agreement among reviewers on relevant clinical characteristics support the feasibility of pediatric risk assessment.

Leukopenia in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease: a single-center cohort of kidney transplant candidates with post-transplantation follow-up.

Background: Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) has occasionally been associated with lower peripheral white blood cell (WBC) counts. This study aimed to investigate the peripheral blood cell counts in a large cohort of kidney transplant recipients before and after kidney transplantation and its potential impact on post-transplant outcomes. Methods: This was a retrospective study with long-term follow-up data of 2090 patients who underwent a first kidney transplantation in the Leuven University Hospitals, of whom 392 had ADPKD. Results: In total, 2090 patients who underwent a first kidney transplantation in the Leuven University Hospitals were included, of whom 392 had ADPKD. Both pre- and post-transplantation, ADPKD patients had significantly lower total WBC counts, and more specifically lower neutrophil, lymphocyte and eosinophil counts compared with the non-ADPKD patients. This observation was independent of potential confounders such as level of inflammation, smoking habit, vitamins and pre-transplant medication. Overall survival and kidney transplant survival were significantly better in ADPKD vs non-ADPKD transplant recipients and a longer time to first infection was observed. However, no association between blood cell counts and outcome differences was found. Conclusions: In conclusion, this large single-center study reports a strong and independent association between ADPKD and lower peripheral WBC counts both before and after kidney transplantation. Considering the role of inflammation in disease progression, further investigation into the role of WBC in ADPKD is needed.

Standardized 4-point scoring scale of [18F]-FDG PET/CT imaging helps in the diagnosis of renal and hepatic cyst infections in patients with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease: a validation cohort.

Background: Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is prone to multiple complications, including cyst infection (CyI). 2-Deoxy-2-[18F]fluoro-d-glucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography ([18F]-FDG PET/CT) imaging has proved useful in the diagnosis of renal and hepatic CyI. A 4-point scale comparing the uptake of [18F]-FDG in the suspected infected cyst versus the hepatic physiological background has been recently proposed. We performed an independent validation of this semi-quantitative scoring system. Methods: All ADPKD patients hospitalized between January 2009 and November 2019 who underwent an [18F]-FDG PET/CT for suspected CyI were retrospectively identified using computer-based databases. Medical files were reviewed. CyI was conventionally defined by the combination of fever (≥38°C), abdominal pain, increased plasma C-reactive protein levels (≥70 mg/L), absence of any other cause of inflammation and favourable outcome after ≥21 days of antibiotics. [18F]-FDG uptake of the suspected CyI was evaluated using a 4-point scale comparing the uptake of [18F]-FDG around the infected cysts with the uptake in the hepatic parenchyma. Statistics were performed using SAS version 9.4. Results: Fifty-one [18F]-FDG PET/CT scans in 51 patients were included, of which 11 were cases of CyI. The agreement between the 4-point scale and the gold-standard criteria of CyI was significant [odds ratio of 6.03 for CyI in case of a score ≥3 (P = .014)]. The corresponding sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values of [18F]-FDG PET/CT using the 4-point scale were 64% [Clopper-Pearson 95% confidence interval (CI) 30%-89%], 78% (95% CI 62%-89%), 44% (95% CI 20%-70%) and 89% (95% CI 73%-97%), respectively. Conclusions: Our independent validation cohort confirms the use of a semi-quantitative 4-point scoring system of [18F]-FDG PET/CT imaging in the diagnosis of CyI in patients with ADPKD. Considering its performance metrics with high specificity and negative predictive value, the scoring system is particularly useful to distinguish other causes of clinical inflammation than CyI and as such avoid unnecessarily long antibiotic treatment.

A Population Model of Time-Dependent Changes in Serum Creatinine in (Near)term Neonates with Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy During and After Therapeutic Hypothermia.

The objective was to apply a population model to describe the time course and variability of serum creatinine (sCr) in (near)term neonates with moderate to severe encephalopathy during and after therapeutic hypothermia (TH). The data consisted of sCr observations up to 10 days of postnatal age in neonates who underwent TH during the first 3 days after birth. Available covariates were birth weight (BWT), gestational age (GA), survival, and acute kidney injury (AKI). A previously published population model of sCr kinetics in neonates served as the base model. This model predicted not only sCr but also the glomerular filtration rate normalized by its value at birth (GFR/GFR0). The model was used to compare the TH neonates with a reference full term non-asphyxiated population of neonates. The estimates of the model parameters had good precision and showed high between subject variability. AKI influenced most of the estimated parameters denoting a strong impact on sCr kinetics and GFR. BWT and GA were not significant covariates. TH transiently increased [Formula: see text] in TH neonates over the first days compared to the reference group. Asphyxia impacted not only GFR, but also the [Formula: see text] synthesis rate. We also observed that AKI neonates exhibit a delayed onset of postnatal GFR increase and have a higher [Formula: see text] synthesis rate compared to no-AKI patients. Our findings show that the use of [Formula: see text] as marker of renal function in asphyxiated neonates treated with TH to guide dose selection for renally cleared drugs is challenging, while we captured the postnatal sCr patterns in this specific population.

Cystic Kidney Diseases in Children and Adults: Differences and Gaps in Clinical Management.

Cystic kidney diseases, when broadly defined, have a wide differential diagnosis extending from recessive diseases with a prenatal or pediatric diagnosis, to the most common autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease primarily affecting adults, and several other genetic or acquired etiologies that can manifest with kidney cysts. The most likely diagnoses to consider when assessing a patient with cystic kidney disease differ depending on family history, age stratum, radiologic characteristics, and extrarenal features. Accurate identification of the underlying condition is crucial to estimate the prognosis and initiate the appropriate management, identification of extrarenal manifestations, and counseling on recurrence risk in future pregnancies. There are significant differences in the clinical approach to investigating and managing kidney cysts in children compared with adults. Next-generation sequencing has revolutionized the diagnosis of inherited disorders of the kidney, despite limitations in access and challenges in interpreting the data. Disease-modifying treatments are lacking in the majority of kidney cystic diseases. For adults with rapid progressive autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease, tolvaptan (V2-receptor antagonist) has been approved to slow the rate of decline in kidney function. In this article, we examine the differences in the differential diagnosis and clinical management of cystic kidney disease in children versus adults, and we highlight the progress in molecular diagnostics and therapeutics, as well as some of the gaps meriting further attention.

Antibiotic Prophylaxis in Infants with Grade III, IV, or V Vesicoureteral Reflux.

BACKGROUND: The efficacy of continuous antibiotic prophylaxis in preventing urinary tract infection (UTI) in infants with grade III, IV, or V vesicoureteral reflux is controversial. METHODS: In this investigator-initiated, randomized, open-label trial performed in 39 European centers, we randomly assigned infants 1 to 5 months of age with grade III, IV, or V vesicoureteral reflux and no previous UTIs to receive continuous antibiotic prophylaxis (prophylaxis group) or no treatment (untreated group) for 24 months. The primary outcome was the occurrence of the first UTI during the trial period. Secondary outcomes included new kidney scarring and the estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) at 24 months. RESULTS: A total of 292 participants underwent randomization (146 per group). Approximately 75% of the participants were male; the median age was 3 months, and 235 participants (80.5%) had grade IV or V vesicoureteral reflux. In the intention-to-treat analysis, a first UTI occurred in 31 participants (21.2%) in the prophylaxis group and in 52 participants (35.6%) in the untreated group (hazard ratio, 0.55; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.35 to 0.86; P = 0.008); the number needed to treat for 2 years to prevent one UTI was 7 children (95% CI, 4 to 29). Among untreated participants, 64.4% had no UTI during the trial. The incidence of new kidney scars and the estimated GFR at 24 months did not differ substantially between the two groups. Pseudomonas species, other non-Escherichia coli organisms, and antibiotic resistance were more common in UTI isolates obtained from participants in the prophylaxis group than in isolates obtained from those in the untreated group. Serious adverse events were similar in the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: In infants with grade III, IV, or V vesicoureteral reflux and no previous UTIs, continuous antibiotic prophylaxis provided a small but significant benefit in preventing a first UTI despite an increased occurrence of non-E. coli organisms and antibiotic resistance. (Funded by the Italian Ministry of Health and others; PREDICT ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT02021006; EudraCT number, 2013-000309-21.).

Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease in Children and Adolescents: Assessing and Managing Risk of Progression.

The clinical management of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) in adults has shifted from managing complications to delaying disease progression through newly emerging therapies. Regarding pediatric management of the disease, there are still specific hurdles related to the management of children and adolescents with ADPKD and, unlike adults, there are no specific therapies for pediatric ADPKD or stratification models to identify children and young adults at risk of rapid decline in kidney function. Therefore, early identification and management of factors that may modify disease progression, such as hypertension and obesity, are of most importance for young children with ADPKD. Many of these risk factors could promote disease progression in both ADPKD and chronic kidney disease. Hence, nephroprotective measures applied early in life can represent a window of opportunity to prevent the decline of the glomerular filtration rate especially in young patients with ADPKD. In this review, we highlight current challenges in the management of patients with pediatric ADPKD, the importance of early modifying factors in disease progression as well as the gaps and future perspectives in the pediatric ADPKD research field.

Illness-related parental stress and quality of life in children with kidney diseases.

BACKGROUND: This cross-sectional study investigated quality of life (QoL) and illness-related parental stress in children with kidney diseases by (1) comparing mean levels of these two variables between several kidney disease categories; (2) exploring correlations between QoL and parental stress; and (3) describing which disease category reports lowest QoL and highest parental stress. METHODS: We included 295 patients with a kidney disease (0-18 years) and their parents, followed at 6 reference centers for pediatric nephrology. Children's QoL was assessed by the PedsQL™ 4.0 Generic Core Scales, and illness-related stress by the Pediatric Inventory for Parents. All patients were divided into 5 kidney disease categories according to the multidisciplinary care program criteria prescribed by the Belgian authorities: (1) structural kidney diseases, (2) tubulopathies and metabolic diseases, (3) nephrotic syndrome, (4) acquired diseases with proteinuria and hypertension, and (5) kidney transplantation. RESULTS: Child self-reports showed no differences in QoL between kidney disease categories, in contrast to parent proxy reports. Parents of transplant patients reported lower QoL in their child and more parental stress compared with the 4 non-transplant categories. QoL and parental stress were negatively correlated. Lowest QoL and highest parental stress scores were mainly found in transplant patients. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed lower QoL and higher parental stress in pediatric transplant patients compared with non-transplants, based on parent reports. Higher parental stress is associated with worse QoL in the child. These results highlight the importance of multidisciplinary care for children with kidney diseases, with special attention to transplant patients and their parents. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Low agreement between various eGFR formulae in pediatric and young adult ADPKD patients.

BACKGROUND: Young autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) patients are becoming the new target population for the development of new treatment options. Determination of a reliable equation for estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) from early stages is needed with the promising potential interventional therapies. METHODS: Prospective and longitudinal study on a cohort of 68 genotyped ADPKD patients (age range 0-23 years) with long-term follow-up. Commonly used equations for eGFR were compared for their relative performance. RESULTS: The revised Schwartz formula (CKiD) showed a highly significant decline in eGFR with aging (- 3.31 mL/min/1.73 m2/year, P < 0.0001). The recently updated equation by the Schwartz group (CKiDU25) showed a smaller (- 0.90 mL/min/1.73 m2/year) but significant (P = 0.001) decline in eGFR with aging and also showed a significant sex difference (P < 0.0001), not observed by the other equations. In contrast, the full age spectrum (FAS) equations (FAS-SCr, FAS-CysC, and the combined) showed no age and sex dependency. The prevalence of hyperfiltration is highly dependent on the formula used, and the highest prevalence was observed with the CKiD Equation (35%). CONCLUSIONS: The most widely used methods to calculate eGFR in ADPKD children (CKiD and CKiDU25 equations) were associated with unexpected age or sex differences. The FAS equations were age- and sex-independent in our cohort. Hence, the switch from the CKiD to CKD-EPI equation at the transition from pediatric to adult care causes implausible jumps in eGFR, which could be misinterpreted. Having reliable methods to calculate eGFR is indispensable for clinical follow-up and clinical trials. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Risk Severity Model for Pediatric Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease Using 3D Ultrasound Volumetry.

BACKGROUND: Height-adjusted total kidney volume (htTKV) measured by imaging defined as Mayo Imaging Class (MIC) is a validated prognostic measure for autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) in adults to predict and stratify disease progression. However, no stratification tool is currently available in pediatric ADPKD. Because magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography in children are difficult, we propose a novel 3D ultrasound-based pediatric Leuven Imaging Classification to complement the MIC. METHODS: A prospective study cohort of 74 patients with genotyped ADPKD (37 female) was followed longitudinally with ultrasound, including 3D ultrasound, and they underwent in total 247 3D ultrasound assessments, with patients' median age (interquartile range [IQR]) at diagnosis of 3 (IQR, 0-9) years and at first 3D ultrasound evaluation of 10 (5-14) years. First, data matching was done to the published MIC classification, followed by subsequent optimization of parameters and model type. RESULTS: PKD1 was confirmed in 70 patients (95%), PKD2 in three (4%), and glucosidase IIα unit only once (1%). Over these 247 evaluations, the median height was 143 (IQR, 122-166) cm and total kidney volume was 236 (IQR, 144-344) ml, leading to an htTKV of 161 (IQR, 117-208) ml/m. Applying the adult Mayo classification in children younger than 15 years strongly underestimated ADPKD severity, even with correction for height. We therefore optimized the model with our pediatric data and eventually validated it with data of young patients from Mayo Clinic and the Consortium for Radiologic Imaging Studies of Polycystic Kidney Disease used to establish the MIC. CONCLUSIONS: We proposed a five-level Leuven Imaging Classification ADPKD pediatric model as a novel classification tool on the basis of patients' age and 3D ultrasound-htTKV for reliable discrimination of childhood ADPKD severity.

Design of two ongoing clinical trials of tolvaptan in the treatment of pediatric patients with autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease.

PURPOSE: Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) is a hereditary condition characterized by massive kidney enlargement and developmental liver defects. Potential consequences during childhood include the need for kidney replacement therapy (KRT). We report the design of 2 ongoing clinical trials (Study 204, Study 307) to evaluate safety, tolerability, and efficacy of tolvaptan in children with ARPKD. METHODS: Both trials are of multinational, multicenter, open-label design. Age range at enrollment is 28 days to < 12 weeks in Study 204 and 28 days to < 18 years in Study 307. Subjects in both studies must have a clinical diagnosis of ARPKD, and those in Study 204 must additionally have signs indicative of risk of rapid progression to KRT, namely, all of: nephromegaly, multiple kidney cysts or increased kidney echogenicity suggesting microcysts, and oligohydramnios or anhydramnios. Target enrollment is 20 subjects for Study 204 and ≥ 10 subjects for Study 307. RESULTS: Follow-up is 24 months in Study 204 (with optional additional treatment up to 36 months) and 18 months in Study 307. Outcomes include safety, tolerability, change in kidney function, and percentage of subjects requiring KRT relative to historical data. Regular safety assessments monitor for possible adverse effects of treatment on parameters such as liver function, kidney function, fluid balance, electrolyte levels, and growth trajectory, with increased frequency of monitoring following tolvaptan initiation or dose escalation. CONCLUSIONS: These trials will provide data on tolvaptan safety and efficacy in a population without disease-specific treatment options. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Study 204: EudraCT 2020-005991-36; Study 307: EudraCT 2020-005992-10.

Polycystic Kidney Disease Drug Development: A Conference Report.

Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is part of a spectrum of inherited diseases that also includes autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease, autosomal dominant polycystic liver disease, and an expanding group of recessively inherited disorders collectively termed hepatorenal fibrocystic disorders. ADPKD is the most common monogenic disorder frequently leading to chronic kidney failure with an estimated prevalence of 12 million people worldwide. Currently, only one drug (tolvaptan) has been approved by regulatory agencies as disease-modifying therapy for ADPKD, but, given its mechanism of action and side effect profile, the need for an improved therapy for ADPKD remains a priority. Although significant regulatory progress has been made, with qualification of total kidney volume as a prognostic enrichment biomarker and its later designation as a reasonably likely surrogate endpoint for progression of ADPKD within clinical trials, further work is needed to accelerate drug development efforts for all forms of PKD. In May 2021, the PKD Outcomes Consortium at the Critical Path Institute and the PKD Foundation organized a PKD Regulatory Summit to spur conversations among patients, industry, academic, and regulatory stakeholders regarding future development of tools and drugs for ADPKD and autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease. This Special Report reviews the key points discussed during the summit and provides future direction related to PKD drug development tools.

Tolvaptan for Children and Adolescents with Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Tolvaptan slows expansion of kidney volume and kidney function decline in adults with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). Progression during childhood could be treated before irreversible kidney damage occurs, but trial data are lacking. We evaluated the safety and efficacy of tolvaptan in children/adolescents with ADPKD. METHODS: This was the 1-year, randomized, double-blind, portion of a phase 3b, two-part trial being conducted at 20 academic pediatric nephrology centers. Key eligibility criteria were ADPKD and eGFR ≥60 ml/min per 1.73 m2. Participants aged 12-17 years were the target group (group 1, enrollment goal n≥60); participants aged 4-11 years could additionally enroll (group 2, anticipated enrollment approximately 40). Treatments were tolvaptan or placebo titrated by body weight and tolerability. Coprimary end points, change from baseline in spot urine osmolality and specific gravity at week 1, assessed inhibition of antidiuretic hormone activity. The key secondary end point was change in height-adjusted total kidney volume (htTKV) to month 12 in group 1. Additional end points were safety/tolerability and quality of life. Statistical comparisons were exploratory and post hoc. RESULTS: Among the 91 randomized (group 1, n=66; group 2, n=25), least squares (LS) mean reduction (±SEM) in spot urine osmolality at week 1 was greater with tolvaptan (-390 [28] mOsm/kg) than placebo (-90 [29] mOsm/kg; P<0.001), as was LS mean reduction in specific gravity (-0.009 [0.001] versus -0.002 [0.001]; P<0.001). In group 1, the 12-month htTKV increase was 2.6% with tolvaptan and 5.8% with placebo (P>0.05). For tolvaptan and placebo, respectively, 65% and 16% of subjects experienced aquaretic adverse events, and 2% and 0% experienced hypernatremia. There were no elevated transaminases or drug-induced liver injuries. Four participants discontinued tolvaptan, and three discontinued placebo. Quality-of-life assessments remained stable. CONCLUSIONS: Tolvaptan exhibited pharmacodynamic activity in pediatric ADPKD. Aquaretic effects were manageable, with few discontinuations. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY NAME AND REGISTRATION NUMBER: Safety, Pharmacokinetics, Tolerability and Efficacy of Tolvaptan in Children and Adolescents With ADPKD (Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease) NCT02964273.

Long-term outcomes of acute kidney injury in children.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Acute kidney injury (AKI) affects up to 35% of all critically ill children and is associated with substantial short-term morbidity and mortality. However, the link between paediatric AKI and long-term adverse outcomes remains incompletely understood. This review highlights the most recent clinical data supporting the role of paediatric AKI as a risk factor for long-term kidney and cardiovascular consequences. In addition, it stresses the need for long-term surveillance of paediatric AKI survivors. RECENT FINDINGS: Recent large-scale studies have led to an increasing understanding that paediatric AKI is a significant risk factor for adverse outcomes such as hypertension, cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease (CKD) over time. These long-term sequelae of paediatric AKI are most often observed in vulnerable populations, such as critically ill children, paediatric cardiac surgery patients, children who suffer from severe infections and paediatric cancer patients. SUMMARY: A growing body of research has shown that paediatric AKI is associated with long-term adverse outcomes such as CKD, hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Although therapeutic pathways tailored to individual paediatric AKI patients are yet to be validated, we provide a framework to guide monitoring and prevention in children at the highest risk for developing long-term kidney dysfunction.

Long-Term Consequences of Acute Kidney Injury After Pediatric Cardiac Surgery: A Systematic Review.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the available data on long-term kidney dysfunction, hypertension, and mortality after cardiac surgery-associated acute kidney injury (AKI) in the pediatric population. STUDY DESIGN: PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, and reference lists of relevant articles were searched for eligible studies published from inception through March 2022. Long-term outcomes after pediatric cardiac surgery complicated by AKI and those without were investigated. RESULTS: We identified 14 studies published between 2013 and 2022 that included a total of 6701 patients (AKI: 1376 patients; no AKI: 5325 patients). These studies used different well-established classifications to define AKI. All the studies suggested that AKI after heart surgery is common in the pediatric patient population and reported a potential link between cardiac surgery-associated AKI and important clinical outcomes. However, only 4 out of 11 studies found a strong association between (absence of recovery from) cardiac surgery-associated AKI and risk of developing chronic kidney disease, and 3 out of 5 studies found a significant increase in mortality rates for pediatric patients who developed AKI after cardiac surgery. Only 1 out of 4 studies found an association between AKI and hypertension at 12 months postoperatively, but found no association at later follow-up times. CONCLUSIONS: Although there is a trend, evidence on the long-term consequences of cardiac surgery-associated AKI in the pediatric population is mixed. Genetic syndromes, preexisting kidney disease, univentricular or cyanotic heart conditions, and/or high-complexity surgery may be more important for the development of kidney dysfunction by adolescence and early adulthood. Regardless, these children may benefit from a long-term kidney follow-up.