Association between cigarette smoking and erectile tumescence: the mediating role of heart rate variability.

Cigarette smoking deleteriously affects erectile function, and conversely, quitting smoking improves erectile hemodynamics. Underlying mechanisms by which smoking (or reduction of smoking frequency) may affect erectile physiology are not well understood. This study examined the mediating role of heart rate variability (HRV; a marker of sympathovagal balance) among a sample of male chronic smokers from the United States. Sixty-two healthy men (Mage=38.27 years; s.d.=10.62) were assessed at baseline (while smoking regularly), at mid-treatment (while using a nicotine patch) and at follow-up, 4 weeks after patch discontinuation. Cigarette use, frequency-domain parameters of HRV (low frequency (LF), high frequency (HF), LF/HF ratio) and physiological sexual arousal responses (via penile plethysmography) were assessed at each visit. Results were consistent with mediation, in that greater reductions in cigarette use from baseline to follow-up were associated with longitudinal increases in LF, which in turn showed positive relationships with across-time changes in erectile tumescence. Neither HF nor LF/HF ratio mediated the relationship between smoking and erection. In conclusion, HRV mediated the inverse relationship between reductions in smoking and enhancements in erectile tumescence. Results underscore the possibility that cigarette use may deleteriously affect erectile function peripherally, in part, by disrupting cardiac autonomic function.

Dopamine and norepinephrine responses to film-induced sexual arousal in sexually functional and sexually dysfunctional women.

This study was designed to assess potential differences between sexually functional and dysfunctional women in dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) responses to erotic stimuli. Blood levels of homovanillic acid (HVA; the major metabolite of DA) and NE were taken during the showing of a nonsexual and a sexual film from 9 women with female sexual arousal disorder and hypoactive sexual desire disorder and from 13 sexually functional women. We assessed sexual arousal subjectively using a self-report scale and physiologically using a vaginal photoplethysmograph. HVA levels significantly decreased in sexually functional and dysfunctional women during the erotic versus during the neutral film. NE levels were not significantly different for either group of women during the neutral and erotic films. Sexually dysfunctional women had significantly higher levels of NE during both the neutral and erotic films compared with functional women. Subjective or physiological arousal differences between neutral and erotic films were not significantly different between functional and dysfunctional women.

Update on female sexual function.

In this review, we briefly discuss recently published data on female sexual desire, arousal, orgasm and pain, and on medical/iatrogenic factors associated with female sexual function. The studies reviewed highlight a number of important methodological and etiological issues in the study of female sexual function. Researchers are urged to use standardized methods for defining sexual disorders and for selecting patient samples. Placebo-controlled studies are essential for examining the pharmacological aspects of female sexual dysfunction. Evidence suggests that free testosterone levels may be associated with sexual desire in women. Sildenafil citrate increases genital blood flow but may not impact on subjective reports of arousal. Past research implicated the serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine 2 and 5-hydroxytryptamine 1A receptors in female sexual function, while recent data suggest a role for the 5-hydroxytryptamine 3 receptor. Increasing attention is being paid to medical/health conditions that impact sexual function (e.g. neurological conditions, cancer, hysterectomy, and cardiovascular disease).

The neurobiology of sexual function.

This article provides a review of the past and current literature on the neurobiology of sexual function. The influence of endocrine, neurotransmitter, and central nervous system influences on male and female sexual function are discussed for sexual desire, arousal, and orgasm or ejaculation stages of sexual responding. Endocrine factors reviewed include the following: androgens, estrogens, progesterone, prolactin, oxytocin, cortisol, and pheromones. Neurotransmitters and neuropeptides discussed include nitric oxide, serotonin, dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, opioids, acetylcholine, histamine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid. Central nervous system influences on sexual function are discussed briefly with reference to brainstem regions, the hypothalamus, and the forebrain.

Sexual abuse and sexual function: an examination of sexually relevant cognitive processes.

Participants were 61 sexually abused and 57 nonsexually abused women. The authors examined whether recent methodologies adopted from social-cognitive psychology might prove helpful in understanding the previously reported negative relation between childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and adult sexual function. In Part I, a card-sort task was used to explore potential differences between sexually abused and nonsexually abused women in the categorization of positive/negative self-information. In Part 2, sexually relevant information networks, believed to represent the way in which information is organized, accessed, and retrieved from memory, were compared. Sexually abused women differed from nonsexually abused women in the meanings they attributed to many sexuality-relevant concepts but not in how they compartmentalized positive/negative self-information. The findings provide insight into the cognitive processes by which CSA experiences might influence adult sexual function and provide a starting point for future research using this type of methodology.

Sympathetic nervous system activity and female sexual arousal.

The results of a series of human and animal studies that were conducted in an effort to better understand autonomic nervous system influences on female sexual arousal are presented. The effects of sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activation on self-report and vaginal photoplethysmographic measures of sexual arousal were examined in 4 studies using intense acute exercise, and in 1 study using ephedrine, to activate the SNS. The effects of SNS inhibition on sexual responses in the female rat were examined in 3 studies using clonidine, an alpha(2)-adrenergic agonist; guanethidine, a postganglionic noradrenergic blocker; and naphazoline, an alpha(2)-adrenoreceptor agonist, to inhibit sympathetic outflow. In humans, the effects of SNS inhibition on subjective and physiologic sexual arousal were also examined using clonidine to suppress SNS activity. Together, the findings from these studies suggest that SNS activation may facilitate, and SNS inhibition inhibit, the early stages of sexual arousal in sexually functional women and in women with low sexual desire.

Management of sexual dysfunction in patients with cardiovascular disease: recommendations of the Princeton Consensus Panel.

Sexual dysfunction is highly prevalent in both sexes and adversely affects patients' quality of life and well being. Given the frequent association between sexual dysfunction and cardiovascular disease, in addition to the potential cardiac risk of sexual activity itself, a consensus panel was convened to develop recommendations for clinical management of sexual dysfunction in patients with cardiovascular disease. Based upon a review of the research and presentations by invited experts, a classification system was developed for stratification of patients into high, low, and intermediate categories of cardiac risk. The large majority of patients are in the low-risk category, which includes patients with (1) controlled hypertension; (2) mild, stable angina; (3) successful coronary revascularization; (4) a history of uncomplicated myocardial infarction (MI); (5) mild valvular disease; and (6) no symptoms and <3 cardiovascular risk factors. These patients can be safely encouraged to initiate or resume sexual activity or to receive treatment for sexual dysfunction. An important exception is the use of sildenafil in patients taking nitrates in any form. Patients in the intermediate-risk category include those with (1) moderate angina; (2) a recent MI (<6 weeks); (3) left ventricular dysfunction and/or class II congestive heart failure; (4) nonsustained low-risk arrhythmias; and (5) >/=3 risk factors for coronary artery disease. These patients should receive further cardiologic evaluation before restratification into the low- or high-risk category. Finally, patients in the high-risk category include those with (1) unstable or refractory angina; (2) uncontrolled hypertension; (3) congestive heart failure (class III or IV); (4) very recent MI (<2 weeks); (5) high-risk arrhythmias; (6) obstructive cardiomyopathies; and (7) moderate-to-severe valvular disease. These patients should be stabilized by specific treatment for their cardiac condition before resuming sexual activity or being treated for sexual dysfunction. A simple algorithm is provided for guiding physicians in the management of sexual dysfunction in patients with varying degrees of cardiac risk.

Management of sexual dysfunction in patients with cardiovascular disease: recommendations of The Princeton Consensus Panel.

Sexual dysfunction is highly prevalent in both sexes and adversely affects patients' quality of life and well being. Given the frequent association between sexual dysfunction and cardiovascular disease, in addition to the potential cardiac risk of sexual activity itself, a consensus panel was convened to develop recommendations for clinical management of sexual dysfunction in patients with cardiovascular disease. Based upon a review of the research and presentations by invited experts, a classification system was developed for stratification of patients into high, low, and intermediate categories of cardiac risk. The large majority of patients are in the low-risk category, which includes patients with (1) controlled hypertension; (2) mild, stable angina; (3) successful coronary revascularization; (4) a history of uncomplicated myocardial infarction (MI); (5) mild valvular disease; and (6) no symptoms and <3 cardiovascular risk factors. These patients can be safely encouraged to initiate or resume sexual activity or to receive treatment for sexual dysfunction. An important exception is the use of sildenafil in patients taking nitrates in any form. Patients in the intermediate-risk category include those with (1) moderate angina; (2) a recent MI (<6 weeks); (3) left ventricular dysfunction and/or class II congestive heart failure; (4) nonsustained low-risk arrhythmias; and (5) >/=3 risk factors for coronary artery disease. These patients should receive further cardiologic evaluation before restratification into the low- or high-risk category. Finally, patients in the high-risk category include those with (1) unstable or refractory angina; (2) uncontrolled hypertension; (3) congestive heart failure (class III or IV); (4) very recent MI (<2 weeks); (5) high-risk arrhythmias; (6) obstructive cardiomyopathies; and (7) moderate-to-severe valvular disease. These patients should be stabilized by specific treatment for their cardiac condition before resuming sexual activity or being treated for sexual dysfunction. A simple algorithm is provided for guiding physicians in the management of sexual dysfunction in patients with varying degrees of cardiac risk.

Evidence that serotonin affects female sexual functioning via peripheral mechanisms.

A review of the literature indicates that serotonin is active in several peripheral mechanisms that are likely to affect female sexual functioning. Serotonin has been found in several regions of the female genital tract in both animals and humans. In the central nervous system (CNS), serotonin acts primarily as a neurotransmitter, but in the periphery, serotonin acts primarily as a vasoconstrictor and vasodilator. Since, in the periphery, the principal component of sexual arousal is vasocongestion of the genital tissue, it is likely that serotonin participates in producing normal sexual arousal. In addition, serotonin administration produces contraction of the smooth muscles of the genito-urinary system and is found in nerves innervating the sexual organs. Taken together, this evidence suggests that peripheral serotonergic activity may be involved in the normal sexual response cycle. In addition, exogenous substances that alter serotonin activity, such as selective serotonin uptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and the atypical antipsychotics, can produce sexual dysfunction. It is possible that sexual side effects seen with these drugs may result, at least in part, from their action on peripheral mechanisms.

Ethnicity, desirable responding, and self-reports of abuse: a comparison of European- and Asian-ancestry undergraduates.

One thousand fifty-two (582 non-Asian, 470 Asian) university students were assessed regarding levels of physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and socially desirable responding. Differences between Asian-ancestry and European-ancestry students in self-reported incidence and expression of abuse were evaluated, as was gender and the relation between self-reported abuse and socially desirable responding. Asian-ancestry men and women reported higher levels of physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect than did their Euro-ancestry counterparts, and Euro-ancestry women reported a higher incidence of sexual abuse than did Asian-ancestry women. Across ethnicity, men reported higher levels of physical abuse and neglect but lower levels of sexual abuse than did women. Socially desirable responding was not related to measures of abuse. Findings are discussed in terms of cultural influences on child-rearing and disciplinary practices.

Ephedrine-activated physiological sexual arousal in women.

BACKGROUND: The present investigation was designed to provide the first empirical examination of the effects of ephedrine sulfate, an alpha- and beta-adrenergic agonist, on subjective and physiological sexual arousal in women. The purpose was to help elucidate the effects of increased peripheral adrenergic activity on sexual response in women. METHODS: Twenty sexually functional women participated in 2 experimental conditions in which subjective (self-report) and physiological (vaginal photoplethysmography) sexual responses to erotic stimuli were measured following administration of either ephedrine sulfate (50 mg) or placebo in a randomized, double-blind, cross-over protocol. RESULTS: Ephedrine significantly (P<.01) increased vaginal pulse amplitude responses to the erotic films and had no significant (P>. 10) effect on subjective ratings of sexual arousal. CONCLUSIONS: Ephedrine can significantly facilitate the initial stages of physiological sexual arousal in women. These findings have implications for deriving new pharmacological approaches to the management of sexual dysfunction in women.

Aging and sexuality.

Recent research suggesting that a high proportion of men and women remain sexually active well into later life refutes the prevailing myth that aging and sexual dysfunction are inexorably linked. Age-related physiological changes do not render a meaningful sexual relationship impossible or even necessarily difficult. In men, greater physical stimulation is required to attain and maintain erections, and orgasms are less intense. In women, menopause terminates fertility and produces changes stemming from estrogen deficiency. The extent to which aging affects sexual function depends largely on psychological, pharmacological, and illness-related factors. In this article I review the physiological sex-related changes that occur as part of the normal aging process in men and women. I also summarize the effects on sexual function of age-related psychological issues, illness factors, and medication use. An understanding of the sexual changes that accompany normal aging may help physicians give patients realistic and encouraging advice on sexuality. Although it is important that older men and women not fall into the psychosocial trap of expecting (or worse, trying to force) the kind and degree of sexual response characteristic of their youth, it is equally as important that they not fall prey to the negative folklore according to which decreased physical intimacy is an inevitable consequence of the passage of time.

Inhibition of subjective and physiological sexual arousal in women by clonidine.

OBJECTIVE: The present investigation was designed to provide the first empirical examination of the effects of clonidine, a selective alpha 2-adrenergic agonist, on sexual arousal in women with and without prior sympathetic nervous system [SNS] stimulation by exercise. The purpose was to help elucidate the influence of adrenergic mechanisms on sexual function in women. METHODS: Thirty sexually functional women participated in two experimental sessions in which subjective (self-report) and physiological (vaginal photoplethysmograph) sexual responses to erotic stimuli were measured after either clonidine (0.2 mg) or placebo administration in a randomized, double-blind, crossover protocol. Before viewing the experimental films, 15 subjects engaged in 20 minutes of intense exercise designed to elicit significant SNS activation. RESULTS: Clonidine significantly decreased vaginal pulse amplitude, vaginal blood volume, and subjective sexual responses to the erotic films in subjects who were in a state of heightened (via exercise), but not baseline (no exercise) SNS arousal. CONCLUSIONS: Clonidine can significantly inhibit subjective and physiological sexual arousal in women. These findings have implications for deriving an etiological theory of sexual function in women and for understanding the effects of psychotherapeutic drugs on female sexual function.

Differential effects of sympathetic activation on sexual arousal in sexually dysfunctional and functional women.

The effects of sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activation, induced via acute exercise, on sexual arousal in women was studied. In 2 experimental sessions, 36 women viewed a neutral film followed by an erotic film. In 1 session, the women were exposed to 20 min of intense exercise before viewing the films. Twelve women were sexually functional, 12 experienced significant impairments in sexual desire, and 12 experienced primary or secondary anorgasmia. Acute exercise significantly increased vaginal pulse amplitude (VPA) and vaginal blood volume (VBV) responses to an erotic film among sexually functional women and those with low sexual desire. Among anorgasmic women, exercise significantly decreased VPA but had no effect on VBV responses to an erotic film. Acute exercise had no significant effect on the women's perceptions of sexual arousal. Results suggest that increased SNS arousal may affect physiological sexual responding in women.

Effects of sympathetic inhibition on receptive, proceptive, and rejection behaviors in the female rat.

The present investigation was designed to examine the effects of sympathetic nervous system (SNS) inhibition on sexual behavior in ovariectomized, steroid-treated female rats. Clonidine, an alpha2-adrenergic agonist, guanethidine, a postganglionic noradrenergic blocker, and naphazoline, an alpha2-adrenoreceptor agonist were used to inhibit SNS activity. Intraperitoneal injections of either 33 micrograms/ml or 66 micrograms/ml clonidine significantly decreased receptive (lordosis) and proceptive (ear wiggles) behaviors and significantly increased rejection behaviors (vocalization, kicking, boxing). Either 25 mg/ml or 50 mg/ml guanethidine significantly decreased receptive and proceptive behavior and had no significant effect on rejection behaviors. Naphazoline significantly inhibited lordosis behavior at either 5 mg/ml or 10 mg/ml doses, significantly inhibited proceptive behavior at 5 mg/ml, and had no significant effect on rejection behaviors. These findings support the hypothesis that SNS inhibition decreases sexual activity in the female rat.

The effects of immediate, delayed, and residual sympathetic activation on sexual arousal in women.

In a recent experiment, Meston and Gorzalka (1995) [Behaviour, Research and Therapy, 33, 651-664] demonstrated a facilitatory effect of sympathetic activation, via acute exercise, on female sexual arousal. The present investigation was designed to examine the time course of this effect. Thirty-six sexually functional women participated in two experimental sessions in which they viewed a neutral film followed by an erotic film. In one of these sessions, Ss were exposed to 20 min of intense exercise (stationary cycling) prior to viewing the films. Subjective (self-report) and physiological (photoplethysmograph) sexual arousal were measured at either 5 min, 15 min, or 30 min post-exercise. Acute exercise marginally decreased vaginal pulse amplitude (VPA) and had no effect on vaginal blood volume (VBV) responses to an erotic film when measured 5 min post-exercise. At 15 min post-exercise, exercise significantly increased VPA and marginally increased VBV responses. At 30 min post-exercise, both VPA and VBV responses to an erotic film were marginally increased. Acute exercise had no significant effect on subjective perceptions of sexual arousal in any of the experimental conditions.

Ethnic and gender differences in sexuality: variations in sexual behavior between Asian and non-Asian university students.

Seven hundred and two (346 non-Asian, 356 Asian) undergraduate volunteers were assessed in a confidential laboratory setting on levels of interpersonal sexual behavior (e.g., petting, intercourse), intrapersonal sexual behavior (e.g., fantasy, masturbation), and sociosexual restrictiveness (e.g., lifetime number of partners, number of "one-night stands"). The purpose was to examine possible differences in sexual behavior between Asian and non-Asian Canadian university students and to determine the association between North American residency and the sexual behavior of Asians. The role of gender on sexual behavior both across and within ethnic groups was also examined. Statistical analyses revealed that Asian students were significantly more conservative than non-Asian students on all measures of interpersonal sexual behavior and sociosexual restrictiveness. Significant differences were also noted between Asian and non-Asian students on most measures of intrapersonal sexual behavior. With the exception of two fantasy items, length of residency in Canada was unrelated to interpersonal sexual behavior, intrapersonal sexual behavior, or sociosexual restrictiveness among Asians. Although gender differences were substantial for intrapersonal sexual behaviors such as fantasy and masturbation, no significant gender differences were found for measures of interpersonal sexual experience, with the exception of reported number of one-night stands.